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Chapter 1 - Imaging
So N = 28 = 256 This is normally shown on a logarithmic scale, one which equal distances correspond to equal multiples Each shade of a colour is given a number given to each shade a colour of either grey (for black and white) or RGB (for colour pictures). The higher the number the darker the shade. This is pictures are stored and sent to people as the each pixel uses 3 bytes of storage
Finding edges: Subtract the N,S,E and W from 4 times the value of each the pixel
1.3 Lenses
Introduction Lenses bend light to either focus it on a point, concave, or spread it out, convex. We only need to learn about concave lenses. Lenses bend light using refraction, as the light enter the glass it changes median so it slows down, so it refracts toward the median and as it leaves it bends away from the median.
As you can see the shape of the lens causes the light to bend.
1.3 Lenses
The Eye In the eye there are two main lenses the cornea and the lens. Although the lens is much more curved than the cornea, it bends the light less. This is because in order for the light to bend it needs to pass through a change in median to refract. As the light passes from the air into the cornea, there is a large change in refractive index, similar to that of a glass lens, this causes the light to bend on the steep angle. But the before the light enters the second lens, it is in the aqueous humour, and this has a similar refractive index the lens means the light doesnt bend very much.
1.3 Lenses
The Focal Length When the light is from a very distant source the waves have no curvature, they are parallel. When this is the case it will cause an image at the focal length (f). 1/f is the power of the lens in dioptres (D) when the focal length is meters.
1.3 Lenses
The Formula
1.3 Lenses
The Formula 1/u is the curvature of the waves before (negative), and 1/v is the curvature of the waves after the lens. 1/v = 1/u + 1/f So the curvature of the waves after the lens equal the curvature before the lens plus the curvature added by the lens. This works with parallel waves from far away, because 1/infinaty = 0, and so 1/v = 1/f, so v = f and the image is at the focal point.
1.3 Lenses
Image The further the source is away from the lens the closer the image will be, so to create an image that is in focus you have either move the lense or the image, but in the muscles contract and relax, to strengthen or weak the power of the lens so the image is always in focus on the retina.
Example If source 1 is 2m away from the lens the waves have a curvature of -0.5D and say the lens has a power of 2D the curvature afterwards is 1.5D so the image is 0.66m away from the lens. But say source 2 is 4m away from the lens the waves have a curvature of -0.25D, and with the same power lens the afterwards is 1.75D so the image is only 0.57m away from the lens.
1.3 Lenses
Magnification and Inversion Lenses can be used to magnify stuff, for example in magnifying glass, this is when the image is in focus after the waves have spread out causing the image to appear larger than the initial source. But they also turn the image upside-down, as you can see in the diagram the waves from the top of the source are projected to the bottom of the image, and the bottom to the top.
Chapter 2 - Sensing
When the resistors are in parallel the total conductance is the sum of all the value of resistors : Gtotal = G1 + G2 Or 1 = 1 + 1 Rtotal R1 R2
Uncertainty The extent to which you cant be sure of a measurement, due to small unsystematic and random variations
Systematic Error An error where something is wrong a needs to be put right, often human error of zero error (an error when the sensor should be reading zero)
Summary
Electric current = charge transferred I = Q time taken t Potential Difference = potential energy difference V = E charge transferred Q Conductance G = I Resistance R = V V I A conductor obeys Ohms law so has a constant conductance and resistance, so current is directly proportional to potential difference. Resistors in parallel: 1 = 1 + 1 Rtotal R1 R2 Resistors in series: Rtotal = R1 + R2 The potential difference from a source (E) and internal resistance is V = E - IR and V = IRload Power in a circuit: P = IV = V2 = I2R R
Chapter 3 - Signalling
But digital signals are unaffected by noise as it is always easy to see whether it was a 0 or 1 Also because digital signals work in binary it is easy to send data stored as binary Because analogue signals are affected by noise it means they cant be transmitted very long distances, as they become unreadable, whereas digital signals can.
Digitising Analogue In order to convert a analogue to digital to things need to be done: sampling, binary coding and further encoding Sampling: - To digitalise you need to break up the continuous data tiny discrete figure, to avoid losing accuracy this needs to be done more than twice the highest frequency. So if the highest frequency is 20kHz then is must be sampled 40,000 times a second. If this is not done than the original signal is not recovered correctly or aliases form where low frequency waves appear to form in the places of higher frequency. Binary coding The numbers from the sampling have to be converted into binary, so they can be sent by digital signal. This size of bandwidth needed to transmit the digital sampled signal depends on: - The resolution of each sample (number of bits specifying the value) - The rate of sampling Further encoding This is used to ensure your picture or email arrives error free.
Many materials are made up of a crystal lattice, but the crystals are not perfect they have dislocations, where atoms dont fit to together. This means the atoms can move making the metal more ductile and malleable. Alloys can contain more than one element, these are less ductile than pure crystals, because the smaller atoms can fill the dislocations. There are three different types of bonding structures: Covalent structures such as silica, atoms share electrons with neighbouring atom, there bonds are directional and hold the atoms in place making a hard and brittle structure. Ionic structures like sodium chloride, give electron to each to form ions which attract each making a bond. These bonds are strong and hold the atoms in place. Metallic structure such has gold, atoms are ionised and the free electrons form a negative glue holding the nuclei in place. But the ions can slip making it strong but ductile. When stretching metal it is the bond the lengthens but only by 0.1% this is why metals have a high youngs modulus. In polymers the bonds rotate making the chains fold so when stretched can extend up to 1%. In rubber sulphur cross-links hold the chains together in certain points but they can fold up in between and when stretched the chains straighten out, allowing for a lot more elastic stretching.
This formula is the same when you are using a diffraction grating, though the order of the maximum is relevant to where you are measuring it from
8.1 Journeys
Time can be used to describe distance, for example a 30 min car journey or 100 light years. Speed = Distance time Average speed = Total distance Total time Instantaneous speed is the speed at one instant in time and is very hard to work out, normally we just use a very small period of time. A journey can represent on two different graphs, distance-time and speed-time graphs. On a distance-time graph the speed is the gradient of the line. On a speed-time graph the distance is the area under the line.
8.3 Velocity
Velocity is speed in a certain direction. Velocity = displacement (s) time (t) You can add velocities but you have to take into account the direction of each velocity, you add them the much like you add vectors. There is instantaneous and average velocities the same as there is for speed.
Vplane
Vresultant
Vair