https://sites.google.

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Prepared by: CLAYON HARRISON

Assessment
Test 1, 15% Unit 1-4 week 6

Test 2 15% Unit 5-8 week 12

Laboratory Experiments 20%

Final Exam 50%

Unit 1: Measurement Unit 2:Basic Mechanics Unit 3:Oscillations and Waves Unit4:Optics Unit 5:Current Electricity Unit 6:Electromagnetism Unit 7:Electronics Unit 8: Telecommunication

The system of units used in the scientific community is called the Systeme internationale .
A Unit is a specified measure of a physical quantity

The system is based on several fundamental quantities listed below:

SI base unit Base quantity length mass time electric current thermodynamic temperature amount of substance luminous intensity Name meter kilogram second ampere kelvin mole candela Symbol m kg s A K mol cd

When recording measurement you must give numerical values and the units associated with it.

A fundamental quantity is a quantity from which others can be derived .

Eg. Length and time are fundamental quantities velocity can be derived from them. L in metres time in seconds velocity metres second

Velocity is a derived quantity

Derived units
Quantity Area Volume density Acceleration force Work power Formula Length x width Length x width x height mass/volume Velocity/time mass x acceleration Force x distance Work/time Unit ? ? ? ? ?N ?J ?W

A scale is a set of marks (graduations) at intervals on a measuring instrument. The smaller the value of the subdivisions on scale the greater the precision

Scales can be said to be linear or non-linear as well as digital or analogue.

Linear: on a linear scale the marks are equally spaced

Non- linear : Marks are not equally spaced

This is an analogue scale

Accuracy means how close the experimental value is to the true value To improve accuracy errors due to measuring instruments and experimental must be reduced

Precision refers to how small an uncertainty a measurement instrument will give. Example a thermometer marked at every degree will give a more precise reading than one marked at every five degrees.

Low Accuracy High Precision

High Accuracy Low Precision

High Accuracy High Precision

Sensitivity speaks about the response of an instrument to the smallest change in input. The greater the response of an instrument to small change the more sensitive it is said to be. Range is the size of the interval between the maximum and minimum quantities that an instrument can measure. What is the range of a metre rule?

The error is the difference between the measured value and the true value. There are two types of errors random and systematic.

Radom errors are caused by experimental factors. Random errors cannot be repeated exactly .Their effects are normally reduced by taking a number of readings and finding an average. Random errors reduce precision. Examples : Fluctuations in temp , pressure, Sudden draughts

Systematic errors cause readings to be consistently too high or too low when compared with the true value. Systematic errors affect the closeness of measurement to its true value. It reduces the accuracy of the measurements. Examples: The zero error on a measuring instrument such as an ammeter

ABSOLUTE ERROR

The absolute error in a quantity is usually expressed in the same unit as the quantity itself. Example: Length of table, L = 1.65 0.05 m. In this case the absolute error L = 0.05 m.
FRACTIONAL ERROR =
=

ABSOLUTE ERROR QUANTITY MEASURED

.05/1.65 = .0303

PERCENTAGE ERROR

= =

FRACTIONAL ERROR 100% .0303x100%= 3.03%

SIMPLE RULES FOR ESTIMATING ACCURACY IN A CALCULATED RESULT

(1)When quantities are ADDED or SUBTRACTED, their

ABSOLUTE ERRORS ADD.

(2)When quantities are MULTIPLIED or DIVIDED, their FRACTIONAL (AND PERCENTAGE) ERRORS ADD.

In calculating a quantity, y, using the formula y = a + b c, one measures a = 2.1 0.2 mm b = 1.6 0.1 mm c = 0.50 0.05 mm Hence, y = 2.1 + 1.6-0.5 = 3.2 mm Absolute error in y, y = 0.2 + 0.1 + 0.05 = 0.35mm The result is then y = 3.20 0.35 mm.

In calculating a quantity, z, using the formula z= pq s one measures p = 7.5 0.5 kg q = 4.0 0.2 m s = 7.0 0.3 m Hence, Fractional error in z = fractional error p + fractional error in q + fractional error in s In symbols z = p +q+ s = 0.5 + 0.2 + 0.3 z p q s 7.5 4 7

z = (0.067 + 0.05 + 0.043) = 0.16 z Absolute error in z, z = 0.16 z

z = (0.16 4.3) = 0.7 kg

The result is then

z = 4.3 0.7 kg

In calculating a quantity, z, using the formula z= pq2 s one measures p = 7.5 0.5 kg q = 4.0 0.2 m s = 7.0 0.3 m Hence, Fractional error in z = fractional error p + 2(fractional error in q) + fractional error in s

In symbols z = p +2q+ s = 0.5 + 2(0.2) + 0.3 z p q s 7.5 4 7

z = (0.067 + 2(0.05) + 0.043) = 0.21 z Absolute error in z, z = 0.16 z z = (0.16 17.14) = 2.74 kg The result is then z = 17.14 2.74kg

Problem

Force = mass x acceleration Mass = 10 kg 1kg Acceleration = 2ms-2 0.05ms-2

What is the force? What is the fractional error of the mass? What is the fractional error of the acceleration? What is the percentage error of the force? What is the absolute error of force?

Sometimes it is necessary to convert sub-multiples (eg.mm) and multiples(eg.km) to SI units.

Factor 1024 1021 1018 1015 1012 109 106 103 102 101 Prefix yotta zetta exa peta tera giga mega kilo hecto deka Symbol Y Z E P T G M k h da Factor 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 10-15 10-18 10-21 10-24 Prefix deci centi milli micro nano pico femto atto zepto yocto Symbol d c m n p f a z y

A conversion factor is the factor by which a quantity expressed in one set of units must be multiplied in order to be expressed in different units. Example: When converting mm to m the conversion factor is 103

Examples: Larger to smaller 1) 1m to mm Conversion factor 103 Therefore 1m X103 =1x103mm = 1000mm 2) 1m2 to mm2 Conversion factor 103 m2 to mm2 (Conversion factor )2 = (103)2 Therefore 1m2 X(103)2 = 1 x 106 mm2

3) 1m3 to mm3 Conversion factor 103 m2 to mm3 (Conversion factor )3 = (103)3 Therefore 1m2 X(103)3 = 1 x 109mm3
Examples: Smaller to Larger 1) 1mm to m Conversion factor 103 Therefore 1mm 103 =1x10 -3m = .001m

1mm2 to m2 Conversion factor 103 mm2 to m2 (Conversion factor )2 = (103)2 Therefore 1mm2 (103)2 =1 x 10-6 m2 Now you do it 1mm3 to m3

Zeros shown merely to locate a decimal point are NOT significant figures example 0.0056 Has only 2 significant figures.

When multiplying or dividing numbers, the number of significant figures in the result is the same as the least number of significant figures in any of the multiplied or divided terms

Examples: 5.000 L Count all the digits starting at the first nonzero digit on the left. 4 significant figures
0.005 m Count all the digits starting at the first nonzero digit on the left. 1 significant figure

1.473 2.6 When multiplying or dividing numbers, the number of significant figures in the result is the same as the least number of significant figures in any of the multiplied or divided terms. 1.473 has 4 significant figures, 2.6 has only 2 significant figures, the result will have 2 significant figures. 1.473 2.6 = 0.57 (rounded up to 0.57 from 0.5665 because the number to the right of the last significant figure was greater than 5)

Website with applet to try at home. http://www.loncapa.org/~mmp/applist/sigfig/sig.htm Fill in the table

Number/Expression 987600.0 1+ 0.4212 .002 0.002002 3.211-3.21 Number of significant figures