Regional ecology

Major Ecosystem Types and

Biomes
 Major Ecosystem
Types and Biomes
• Marine Ecosystems
• Freshwater Ecosystems
• Terrestrial Biomes
• Human-Designed and Managed Systems
1 Marine Ecosystems
 Marine Ecosystems
• 70% of the Surface of the Earth
• Weather and climate of the Earth
 The Ocean
• Oceanography
Organic matter food chains are important in the
ocean

• Largest three-dimensional ecosystems

• Many of the major phyla are found only in the
ocean

Deep seas are characterized by high diversity

and evolutionary adaptations

• Dependent on detritus coming from above

 Continental Shelf
• Marine life is concentrated near the shore
Inshore plankton is enriched with meroplankton

• Consists of pelagic larvae

• Benthos
Epifauna

• Infauna
 Fishing
• Fisheries are usually located on or near the
continental shelf

• Threat of overfishing
 Upwelling Regions
• Creates productive marine ecosystems
Characteristics

• high concentration of nutrients

• high productivity and short food chains
high organic content

• adjacent land area is a coastal dessert

 Deep Sea
Hydrothermal Vents

• Continental Drift Theory

Mid-oceanic ridges

• hydrothermal vents
chemosynthetic bacteria
 Estuaries
• Semi-enclosed body of water
Intermediate between salt and freshwater

• Fertile
• Major life forms
phytoplankton

• benthic microflora
• macroflora
• Efficient nutrient trap
 Mangroves
• Tolerance
• Can have a biomass equal to a terrestrial forest
 Coral Reefs

• In warm, shallow waters

As barriers

• Most productive and diverse among biotic

communities

• Superorganism
• Bleaching
2 Freshwater
Ecosystems
Freshwater ecosystems

Lentic – standing water (from lenis, “calm”)

ex. Lakes and ponds
Lotic – Running water (from lotus, “washed”)
ex. Streams and rivers
Wetlands – water levels fluctuate up and down
ex. Marshes and swamps
 Lentic ecosystems

This is divided into five zones
Littoral zone – contains rooted vegetation along
the shore
Limnetic zone – open water dominated by
plankton
Profundal zone – contains only heterotrophs
Compensation depth – where light penetration
is so reduced
Benthic zone – dominated by bottom dwelling
organisms

Lakes often become thermally stratified during
summer and winter
Epilimnion – warmer upper part of the lake
Hypolimnion – the cooler, deeper water
Thermocline – acts as barrier to the exchange of
materials.
Photic zone – lighted portion of a lake or ocean
inhabited by phytoplankton.
 Lotic ecosystem


Difference in between running and standing
water:
Current is a mahor controlling and limiting
factor in streams.
Land-water exchange is relatively more
extensive in streams
Oxygen tension is generally high and more
uniform in streams
 Lotic ecosystem


Rapid zone – has a current to keep the bottom
clear of silt and other loose material.

Pool zone – has a deeper water, where velocity of
the current is reduced, so that sand and salt
settle.
 Freshwater Wetlands


Riverine wetlands – located in low-lying
depressions and flood-plains associated with
rivers
Lacustrine wetlands – (lacus, “lake) associated with
lakes, ponds or dammed riveres channels.
Palustrine wetlands – (palus, “marsh”) includes marshes,
bogs, fens, wet prairies and temporary ponds.
Forested Wetlands
Tidal Freshwater
Marshes
Tidal Freshwater
Marshes
Tidal Freshwater
Marshes
3 Terrestrial Biomes
TERRESTRIAL BIOMES
 BIOMES

1) Major regional ecological organization

• Classification of world vegetation

patterns

• It includes both major plant formations

together with its animal life.
 BIOMES
According to: C. HART MERRIAM (1894)
*it is a LIFE ZONE concept
-relationship between climate and
vegetation
- applied to mountainous regions
 BIOMES
According to: HOLDRIDGE (1947)

* The HOLDRIDGE LIFE ZONE SYSTEM

- use of gradient of mean annual biotemperatures wi
ratio
Of potential evapotranspiration to annual precipitation
Holdridge System
THREE CLASSIFICATIONS
1) Life zones
2) Associations
3) Local Subdivisions
 BIOMES

According to: WHITTAKER(1975)

*It is the PATTERNS OF WORLD PLANT FORMATIONS

- relationship of the mean of annual temperature & m
of annual precipitation
 BIOMES

According to: BAILEY(1976)

*It is concept of ECOREGIONS

-interactions of climate, soil, and topography
-domiains, divisions and provinces
-embraces both terrestrial and oceanic ecosystems
 LIFE-FORM

-grass, shrub, deciduous tree, coniferous tree

-key to demarcate and recognize terrestrial biom
-involves also the mobile animals
-large mammalian herbivores and detritus food c
 A. TUNDRA

-Low temperatures and short growing

seasons
-Precipitation is low but not limiting
-“permafrost”

Arctic Alpine
ARCTIC TUNDRA
*low-growing vegetation including shrubs,
grasses, mosses, and herbs, covers the
plains and coastal regions of the Arctic

1)Low Tundra- spongy and thick decaying vegetation

2)High Tundra- lichens and grasses
ALPINE TUNDRA

-occur above the timberline in the high mountains

of the world

-cushion and mat forming plants

. POLAR AND HIGH MOUNTAIN ICE C

*ICE CAPS- extreme environment

- additional source of energy (“Aeolian
biome”)
- Green ice algae
- Lake Vostok
 C. NORTHERN
CONIFEROUS FOREST

*Boreal forest/Taiga
- long, cold winters & short rainy summers
-North America and Eurasia
-populations in pulse cycle
 C. TEMPERATE
CRUCIAL BIOTIC
DECIDUOUS FOREST
REGION

-Areas of abundant and evenly distributed rainfall

-Eastern North America, Europe and part of Japan
-Pines
-Pulpy fruits and nuts
Deciduous Forest
Biome of North
America
1) Beech-maple forest
2) Oak-Hickory fore
3) Pine edaphic Forest
HARVESTING THE FORESTS
*Timber Production (2 PHASES):
1) Annual timber harvest > Annual Growth
2) Annual timber harvest < Annual Growth

*Timber is cut depending on how timber is taxed

1) Standing timber
2) Cut timber
 D. TEMPERATE GRASSLAND

-rainfall is intermediate between desert& forest

land
-soil moisture is a key factor
-short lived compared to trees (Humus rich)
-North and South America, Australia and
North American
*Three Classifications of Grass:

Grassland
1) tall grasses/big blue stem(2-3 m) : switch
grass
2) Midsize grass/little blue stem(1-2 m):
needle grass
3) Short grass (0.1- 0.5 m): buffalo
grass
*Roots:
1) mass
2) growth
a) Sod formers – w/ underground
rhizomes
tall grasses, buffalo and
 FORBS
-Non-grass herbs
-Composites and legumes
-Indicators of stress
Tropical Grasslands and Savannas

• Characterized by the amount of rainfall yielded per

year (40-60 inches).
•Fires are essential in this biome.
• Due to the temperature and events housed in this
biome, lesser number of floral species exists but are
well adapted to it.
• Best example that would picture this biome is the
African wilderness.
Figure 1. African
Savanna
Chaparral and Sclerophyllous Woodland
• Housed mostly in the temperate countries like the USA
which has abundant winter rains and dry summers
seasonally.
• Vegetation consists of solely tree shrubs with hard
thick evergreen leaves.
• This biome is very prone to fire.
• This biome is not conducive for large sized animals.
Mostly rodents dominate and adapt to the environment
it has.
• This is seen in the California and as well in selected
areas of the Australia
Figure 2. Chaparral tree on a
forest fire
 Deserts
• Best example is the Sahara Desert found in the
continent of Africa.
• Characterized by a sandy form of soil (when irrigated
may produce good vegetation output) due to extreme
climate this biome has.
• Only 10 inches of rainfall is the annual output of
precipitation.
• Exclusive for vegetations like cactus and shrubs (CAM
type of respiration)
• Camel and the like were the ones that can live in this
biome.
 Deserts
COLD DESERT
HOT DESERT • Accommodated in a
• Can be observed temperate country
with very hot like China. Similar
temperature (e.g. features are
Sahara, Arabian) observed but its
temperature can go
below 0°C but
season is dry whole
year. (e.g. Tibet,
Gobi)
• Called a desert
because of not
bearing any living in
the said biome
Figure 3. Typical
Hot Desert
Figure 4. A Cold Desert
Semi-Evergreen Tropical Forests
 Tropical Rainforest

• Annual rainfall varies from 80-90 inches yearly.

• Very favorable for all kinds of life forms (vegetation
and creature).
• Philippines itself houses this type of biome.
• This environment has three seasons (rainy, cool-dry
and summer)
• Trees dominate the vegetation therefore arboreal
animals dominate
 Tropical Rainforest
MONTANE RAINFOREST CLOUD RAINFOREST
• Tall type of vegetation • Located at the top most
(e.g. Mahogany). region of a mountain.
• Located at the foot of • Grasses and other
the mountain. epiphytes contribute the
largest biomass

RIVERINE RAINFORESTS
• Also called as Gallery Forest
• Occurs on the riverbanks and river flood
plains.
Figure 5. Montane forest of Mt.
Kilimanjaro
Figure 6. An Epiphyte taken on a
Cloud Forest
Figure 7. Riverine Forest
Tropical Scrub or Thornwoods

• Climate condition is an intermediate of Desert and

Tropical.
• Vegetation is mostly bushy and thorny
Figure 8. Scrub Forest
 Mountains

• Large and diverse flora and fauna is seen gradient as it

is observe through elevation.
• Due to its richness, men dwell in this form of biome.
• Terraces were built to prevent casualties as well adds
vegetation source for men.
• The Cordilleras is the best example of it in the country.
 Caves

• Not considered as an individual biome.

• Bears unique flora and fauna.
• Very high record of endemicity of species both in flora
and fauna.
• Under-sea vents are also considered as a cave.
• The Island of Palawan is rich in the said land form.
(under-sea vents mostly evident)
4 Human-Designed
and Managed
Systems
Human-Designed and
managed Systems
 Agroecosystems
• Domesticated ecosystems that are in many ways
intermediate between natural ecosystems
Solar powered similar to natural ecosystem
Auxiliary energy (fossil fuels and fertilizers)
enhances productivity but also increase in
pollution.
Diversity is greatly reduced by human management
to increase the yield of specific crops.
Domesticated plants and animals are under artificial
rather than natural selection
Control is external and goal oriented rather than
internal via subsystem feedback as in natural
ecosystem.
 Agroecosystems
• In less developed countries long standing agricultural
practices are energy sufficient ecologically sustainable and
provide adequate food for local people.

However these practices do not produce surplus products

that can feed large populations and be exported as
commodities in exchange for countries

• Many countries small countries are pushing to replace

traditional agroecosystems with industrial ones with little
consideration of their downsides such as pollution and
displacing of the independent farm family.
 Agroecosystems
• Plantation forests (tree farms) are designed to
increase wood and fiber production per unit area.

Consideration of downsides such as loss of soil

quality, pest control or artificial fertilizers to
replace nutrients removed with the harvest.

Agroforestry a practice that involves the

cultivation of small, fast-growing trees and food
crops in alternate rows.
 Urban-Industrial
• Cities suburbs and industrial developments

Technoecosystem
Energetic islands with large ecological footprints
in the matrix of natural and agricultural
landscapes

Parasitic in nature

Grow rapidly, haphazardly and without regard to

life support

Outstrip infrastructure necessary to maintain

their growth

Urban and landscape planning is needed in

maintaining the quality of systems

Long term management andt restoration of

these human-designed systems will require an
 Conservation Ecology
• Provides an integrative approach and field of
study, focusing on the protection and
management of biodiversity based on the
principles of both applied and basic ecology

Applied ecology which provide exciting

challenges in the management and development
of sustainable systems