Research Methodology

Measurement

Concept
A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes

Operational Definition
Specifies what the researcher must do to measure the concept under investigation

Media Skepticism conceptual definition

Media skepticism - the degree to which individuals are skeptical toward the reality presented in the mass media. Media skepticism varies across individuals, from those who are mildly skeptical and accept most of what they see and hear in the media to those who completely discount and disbelieve the facts, values, and portrayal of reality in the media.

Media Skepticism Operational Definition

Please tell me how true each statement is about the media. Is it very true, not very true, or not at all true? 1. The program was not very accurate in its portrayal of the problem. 2. Most of the story was staged for entertainment purposes. 3. The presentation was slanted and unfair.

Scale
Series of items arranged according to value for the purpose of quantification A continuous spectrum

Nominal Scale

Ordinal Scale

Interval Scale

Ratio Scale

Scale Properties
Uniquely classifies Preserves order Equal intervals Natural zero

Nominal Scale Properties

Uniquely classifies
Sammy Sosa # 21 Barry Bonds # 25

Ordinal Scale Properties

Uniquely classifies Preserves order Win, place, & show

Interval Scale Properties

Uniquely classifies Preserves order Equal intervals
Consumer Price Index (Base 100) Fahrenheit temperature

Ratio Scale Properties

Uniquely classifies Preserves order Equal intervals
Natural zero Weight and distance

Index Measures
ATTRIBUTES A single characteristic or fundamental feature that pertains to an object, person, or issue COMPOSITE MEASURE A composite measure of several variables to measure a single concept; a multi-item instrument

The Goal of Measurement Validity

Validity
The ability of a scale to measure what was intended to be measured

Reliability
The degree to which measures are free from random error and therefore yield consistent results

Reliability and Validity on Target

Old Rifle

New Rifle Sun glare High Reliability (Target B)

New Rifle

Low Reliability (Target A)

Reliable but Not Valid (Target C)

Validity
Validity

FACE OR CONTENT

CRITERION VALIDITY

CONSTRUCT VALIDITY

CONCURRENT

PREDICTIVE

Reliability
RELIABILITY

STABILITY

INTERNAL CONSISTENCY

TEST RETEST

EQUIVALENT FORMS

SPLITTING HALVES

Sensitivity
A measurement instruments ability to accurately measure variability in stimuli or responses.

Research Methodology
Attitude Measurement

Attitude
An enduring disposition to consistently respond in a given matter

Attitudes as Hypothetical Constructs

The term hypothetical construct is used to describe a variable that is not directly observable, but is measurable by an indirect means such as verbal expression or overt behavior - attitudes are considered to be such variables.

Three Components of an Attitude

Affective Cognitive Behavioral

Affective
The feelings or emotions toward an object

Cognitive
Knowledge and beliefs

Behavioral
Predisposition to action Intentions Behavioral expectations

Measuring Attitudes
Ranking Rating Sorting Choice

The Attitude Measuring Process

Ranking - Rank order preference Rating - Estimates magnitude of a characteristic Sorting - Arrange or classify concepts Choice - Selection of preferred alternative

Ranking tasks require that the respondent rank order a small number of objects in overall performance on the basis of some characteristic or stimulus.

Rating asks the respondent to estimate the magnitude of a characteristic, or quality, that an object possesses. The respondents position on a scale(s) is where he or she would rate an object.

Sorting might present the respondent with several concepts typed on cards and require that the respondent arrange the cards into a number of piles or otherwise classify the concepts.

Choice between two or more alternatives is another type of attitude measurement - it is assumed that the chosen object is preferred over the other.

Physiological measures of attitudes provide a means of measuring attitudes without verbally questioning the respondent. for example, galvanic skin responses, measure blood pressure etc.

Simple Attitude Scaling

In its most basic form, attitude scaling requires that an individual agree with a statement or respond to a single question. This type of self-rating scale merely classifies respondents into one of two categories;

Simplified Scaling Example

THE PRESIDENT SHOULD RUN FOR RE-ELECTION _______ AGREE ______ DISAGREE

Category Scales
A category scale is a more sensitive measure than a scale having only two response categories - it provides more information. Questions working is an extremely important factor in the usefulness of these scales.

Example of Category Scale

How important were the following in your decision to visit San Diego (check one for each item)
VERY IMPORTANT CLIMATE ___________ COST OF TRAVEL ___________ FAMILY ORIENTED ___________ EDUCATIONAL/ HISTORICAL ASPECTS _________ FAMILIARITY WITH AREA ___________ SOMEWHAT IMPORTANT ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ NOT TOO IMPORTANT ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________

Method of Summated Ratings: The Likert Scale

An extremely popular means for measuring attitudes. Respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or disagree with statements. Response alternatives: strongly agree, agree, uncertain, disagree, and strongly disagree.

Likert Scale for Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis

It is more fun to play a tough, competitive tennis match tan to play an easy one. ___Strongly Agree ___Agree ___Not Sure ___Disagree ___Strongly Disagree

Likert Scale for Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis

There is really no such thing as a tennis stroke that cannot be mastered. ___Strongly Agree ___Agree ___Not Sure ___Disagree ___Strongly Disagree

Likert Scale for Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis

Playing tennis is a great way to exercise. ___Strongly Agree ___Agree ___Not Sure ___Disagree ___Strongly Disagree

Semantic Differential
A series of seven-point bipolar rating scales. Bipolar adjectives, such as good and bad, anchor both ends (or poles) of the scale.

Semantic Differential
A weight is assigned to each position on the rating scale. Traditionally, scores are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.

Semantic Differential Scales for Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis

Exciting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Calm Interesting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Dull Simple___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Complex Passive ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Active

Numerical Scales
Numerical scales have numbers as response options, rather than semantic space or verbal descriptions, to identify categories (response positions).

Stapel Scales
Modern versions of the Stapel scale place a single adjective as a substitute for the semantic differential when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives. The advantage and disadvantages of a Stapel scale, as well as the results, are very similar to those for a semantic differential. However, the Stapel scale tends to be easier to conduct and administer.

A Stapel Scale for Measuring a Stores Image

Department Store Name +3 +2 +1 Wide Selection -1 -2 -3

Select a plus number for words that you think describe the store accurately. the more accurately you think the work describes the store, the larger the plus number you should choose. Select a minus number for words you think do not describe the store accurately. The less accurately you think the word describes the store, the large the minus number you should choose, therefore, you can select any number from +3 for words that you think are very accurate all the way to -3 for words that you think are very inaccurate.

Behavioral Differential
The behavioral differential instrument has been developed for measuring the behavioral intentions of subjects towards any object or category of objects. A description of the object to be judged is placed on the top of a sheet, and the subjects indicate their behavioral intentions toward this object on a series of scales. For example:
A 25-year old woman sales representative Would ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Would Not Ask this person for advice.

Paired Comparisons
In paired comparisons the respondents are presented with two objects at a time and asked to pick the one they prefer. Ranking objects with respect to one attribute is not difficult if only a few products are compared, but as the number of items increases, the number of comparisons increases geometrically (n*(n -1)/2). If the number of comparisons is too great, respondents may fatigue and no longer carefully discriminate among them.

Divide 100 points among each of the following brands according to your preference for the brand:
Brand A _________ Brand B _________ Brand C _________

Graphic Rating Scales

A graphic rating scale presents respondents with a graphic continuum.

Graphic Rating Scale Stressing Pictorial Visual Communications

3 Very Good

1 Very Poor

Monadic Rating Scale

A Monadic Rating Scale asks about a single concept
Now that youve had your automobile for about 1 year, please tell us how satisfied you are with its engine power and pickup.
Completely Satisfied Very Satisfied Fairly Well Satisfied Somewhat Dissatisfied Very Dissatisfied

A Comparative Rating Scale

A Comparative Rating Scale asks respondents to rate a concept by comparing it with a benchmark
Please indicate how the amount of authority in your present position compares with the amount of authority that would be ideal for this position.
TOO MUCH ABOUT RIGHT TOO LITTLE

An Unbalanced Scale
An Unbalanced Scale has more responses distributed at one end of the scale
How satisfied are you with the bookstore in the Student Union?
Neither Satisfied Nor Dissatisfied Quite Satisfied Very Dissatisfied

Satisfied

Research Methodology

Sample Designs and Sampling Procedures

Sampling Terminology
Sample Population or universe Population element Census

Sample
Subset of a larger population

Population
Any complete group
People Sales territories Stores

Census
Investigation of all individual elements that make up a population

Stages in the Selection of a Sample

Define the target population

Select a sampling frame

Determine if a probability or nonprobability sampling method will be chosen Plan procedure for selecting sampling units

Determine sample size

Select actual sampling units

Conduct fieldwork

Target Population
Relevant population Operationally define Comic book reader?

Sampling Frame
A list of elements from which the sample may be drawn Working population Mailing lists - data base marketers Sampling frame error

Sampling Units
Group selected for the sample Primary Sampling Units (PSU) Secondary Sampling Units Tertiary Sampling Units

Random Sampling Error

The difference between the sample results and the result of a census conducted using identical procedures Statistical fluctuation due to chance variations

Systematic Errors
Nonsampling errors Unrepresentative sample results Not due to chance Due to study design or imperfections in execution

Errors Associated with Sampling

Sampling frame error Random sampling error Nonresponse error

Two Major Categories of Sampling

Probability sampling
Known, nonzero probability for every element

Nonprobability sampling
Probability of selecting any particular member is unknown

Nonprobability Sampling
Convenience Judgment Quota Snowball

Probability Sampling
Simple random sample Systematic sample Stratified sample Cluster sample Multistage area sample

Convenience Sampling
Also called haphazard or accidental sampling The sampling procedure of obtaining the people or units that are most conveniently available

Judgment Sampling
Also called purposive sampling An experienced individual selects the sample based on his or her judgment about some appropriate characteristics required of the sample member

Quota Sampling
Ensures that the various subgroups in a population are represented on pertinent sample characteristics To the exact extent that the investigators desire It should not be confused with stratified sampling.

Snowball Sampling
A variety of procedures Initial respondents are selected by probability methods Additional respondents are obtained from information provided by the initial respondents

Simple Random Sampling

A sampling procedure that ensures that each element in the population will have an equal chance of being included in the sample

Systematic Sampling
A simple process Every nth name from the list will be drawn

Stratified Sampling
Probability sample Subsamples are drawn within different strata Each stratum is more or less equal on some characteristic Do not confuse with quota sample

Cluster Sampling
The purpose of cluster sampling is to sample economically while retaining the characteristics of a probability sample. The primary sampling unit is no longer the individual element in the population The primary sampling unit is a larger cluster of elements located in proximity to one another

Examples of Clusters
Population Element Possible Clusters in the United States

U.S. adult population

States Counties Metropolitan Statistical Area Census tracts Blocks Households

Examples of Clusters
Population Element Possible Clusters in the United States

College seniors Manufacturing firms

Colleges Counties Metropolitan Statistical Areas Localities Plants

Examples of Clusters
Population Element Possible Clusters in the United States

Airline travelers

Airports Planes Football stadiums Basketball arenas Baseball parks

Sports fans

What is the Appropriate Sample Design?

Degree of accuracy Resources Time Advanced knowledge of the population National versus local Need for statistical analysis

Internet Sampling is Unique

Internet surveys allow researchers to rapidly reach a large sample. Speed is both an advantage and a disadvantage. Sample size requirements can be met overnight or almost instantaneously. Survey should be kept open long enough so all sample units can participate.

Internet Sampling
Major disadvantage
lack of computer ownership and Internet access among certain segments of the population

Yet Internet samples may be representative of a target populations.

target population - visitors to a particular Web site.

Hard to reach subjects may participate

Web Site Visitors

Unrestricted samples are clearly convenience samples Randomly selecting visitors Questionnaire request randomly "pops up" Over- representing the more frequent visitors

Panel Samples
Typically yield a high response rate
Members may be compensated for their time with a sweepstake or a small, cash incentive.

Database on members
Demographic and other information from previous questionnaires

Select quota samples based on product ownership, lifestyle, or other characteristics. Probability Samples from Large Panels

Internet Samples
Recruited Ad Hoc Samples Opt-in Lists