Dr Saurabh Samdariya

I.

II.
III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI.

Introduction Historical aspects Sources Ionising radiations Decay constant activity half life radioactive series radioactive equilibrium modes of radioactive decay Introduction to radioisotopes

XII.

radioisotopes in clinical medicine

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 the

property of an element wherein atom gives off radiation in terms of particle, electromagnetic radiation or both in order to achieve stability is called as radioactivity & the process is called as radioactive decay/disintegration. 118 elements discovered till now of them are stable

Total Most

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Naturally occuring radioactive elements Uranium grouped into 3 series Actinium Thorium 238 4.51 x 109 yr U Pb206

235

7.13 x 108 yr

Pb207

Th

23 2

1.39 x 1010 yr

Pb208

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HISTORICAL ASPECTS

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William Conrad Roentgen

Discovery of x Rays - 1895 Nobel prize-1901

Ernest Rutherford

Discovery of alpha particles (1897)

Sir Joseph john Thomson

Discovery of electrons Nobel prize-1906

Paul ulrich vilard

Discovery of gamma rays-1900

Sir James Chadwick

Discovery of neutron Nobel prize-1932

1.naturally occuring-Radon Pottasium Carbon-14 2. manmade - Medical uses Consumer products( smoke detectors) Fall out from nuclear testing Emissions (nuclear plants)
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ATOM ATOM

NUCLEUS NUCLEUS

ELECTRONS ELECTRONS

PROTONS PROTONS
POSITIVE CHARGE

NEUTRONS NEUTRONS
NEUTRAL CHARGE

NEGATIVE CHARGE NEGATIVE CHARGE

equal in a Atomic Most Number of the atoms mass. neutral atom equals the # of...
QUARKS

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Atomic Mass Unit (amu) is defined as exactly 1/12 of the mass of the atom of Carbon-12. It is a very small number. Isotopes An atom of an element that has the same atomic number but different mass number is called an isotope. Ions When an atom loses or gains electrons, the species formed is called an ion and carries a net charge The atomic mass of an element is the average of the isotopic masses, weighted according to the naturally occurring abundances of the isotopes of the element. The molecular weight is the sum of amu for all elements, in the molecule, times Avogadros number (a very large number, 6.02*1023), in grams
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 Four

Primary Types Of Ionising Radiations-

1. Alpha particles 2.Beta particles 3.Gamma rays (or photons) 4.X-Rays (or photons) 5.Neutrons

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Composed

neutrons Particle radiation (largest and most massive of all the ionizing particles) Least penetrating of all ionizing radiation and can be shielded by a few inches of air, penetrating power can be stopped by a piece of paper or the outer layer of skin. It has a very short range and it has great destructive power within its short range.

of two protons and two

Alpha emission ctd

It is not suitable for radiation therapy since its range is less than a tenth of a millimeter inside the body. Its main radiation hazard comes when it is ingested into the body it is positioned for maximum damage when in contact with fast-growing membranes and living cells

BETA RADIATION

Particle radiation Beta particles are just electrons from the nucleus The high energy electrons have greater range of penetration than alpha particles, but still much less than gamma rays. The radiation hazard from betas is greatest if they are ingested. can be shielded by several inches of plastic, thin plywood and sheet metal. Can penetrate up to 1/4 in. into the tissue

Gamma radioactivity
is composed of electromagnetic rays; has no mass distinguished from x-rays only by the fact that it comes from the nucleus Most gamma rays are somewhat higher in energy than x-rays and therefore are very penetrating.

Gamma radioactivity
thick concrete can reduce the effect of gamma rays to permissible levels. It is the most useful type of radiation for medical purposes, but at the same time it is the most dangerous because of its ability to penetrate large thicknesses of material

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 Fraction

of total no of atoms that decay per unit of

time Radioactive decay is a stastical phenomenon No of atom disintegrating per unit time-no of radioactive atoms present
N T

= No e-t
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 Radioactivity
y

of radioactive elements

A=-N A = Ae- t units - curie becqurel(SI)

ci =3.7x10 dps

1 Bq = 1 dps=2.7x 10-11 ci
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 Time

required for either the activity or no of radioactive atom to decay to half of the initial value

N = N e- t o

1/2

.693

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Physical Half-Life Time (in minutes, hours, days or years) required for the activity of a radioactive material to decrease by one half due to radioactive decay

Biological Half-Life Time required for the body to eliminate half of the radioactive material (depends on the chemical form)

Effective Half-Life The net effect of the combination of the physical & biological half-lives in removing the radioactive material from the body Half-lives range from fractions of seconds to millions of years 1 HL = 50% 2 HL = 25% 3 HL = 12.5%

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 Avg

life time for decay of radioactive atoms Time period that a hypothetical source would need if it retained its original activity for the time period and then suddenly decayed to zero activity to produce the same no of disintegration as produced over an infinite time period by the source if it decayed exponentially

ta = 1/

ta = 1.44 t1/2
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 Activity
Uses

per unit mass of radionuclide

1.Tracer studies are done using high sp. activity elements. 2.Teletherapy source(Co-60 is preferred over Cs-137)

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parent nuclei
(t1/2)p> (t1/2)d (t1/2)p>>>>>(t1/2)d

daughter nucei

{Transient eq.} {Secular eq. }

examples-

- Mo generator producing Tc99m for diagnostic purposes (transient) - Ra source in a sealed tube or needle in order to keep radon gas (secular)Page 31

A A2

A1 x

2 [ y -y 2 1 y 2 1

( 1-e-y2-y1 ) t ]

/A

= Y2

/ Y -Y

= T1

/ T -T
1

A2

= A1 (1 - e- y2 t )

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 An

unstable releases energy to become more stable(RADIOACTIVE DECAY) decay primay decay processes decay e capture emission iso metastble
internal conversion

Secondary decay processes

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3000 known nuclei, but only 266 stable ones!

Z > 83 elements not stable! Tendency for N Z, for small Z, but N > Z for larger Z. (due to proton repulsion) Unusual stability for magic numbers. Z, N = 2, 10, 18, 36, 54 (analogous to electronic shells

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Radioactivity decays with time

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particles are monoenegertic and have 4 to 8 Mev energy.

A X Z A-4 4+ Q Y + He 2 Z- 2

= Disintegration energy(K.E. of alpha particle and daughter nuclei)

Ex- elements having high Z (Ra216 Rn222 Po218 U235 Pu239 Am241)
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1.

-(negatron) decay- high n/p ratio Ex.- H, C, P, Co, Sr, Mo, I, Cs, Au
1 1p 1

0n

-1

0++Q

A X Z

A 0 + +Q Y + -1 Z- 1

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2 . + (positron) decay- low n/p ratio( )

1 p1

1 n 0

0 + +1

+Q

A X Z

A 0 + Y + +1 Z- 1

+Q

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to + decay nucleus captures e- from its orbit (usually K shell ) It increases nuclear mass by .511 Mev From p to n Occur for not sufficient energy for b+ decay(1.22Mev) Ex - Na, K, Cr, Co, Ir
Similar

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 Secondary
1.

decay processes emission . excitation energy given off by photon = rays . fast process

E = EP - ED
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Radioactive Atom

Ionizing Radiation

alpha particle
X-ray

beta particle

gamma ray Page 47

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if two atoms of an element are having same atomic no (p) but differ in their their atomic mass(A) then those two atoms are called as isotope of each other and if atom is having property of radioemission it is called as RADIOISOTOPES.

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DIAGNOSIS

THERAPY

in vitro

in vivo

internal

external

Systemic sources

tele radio

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14C
3H 125I

201Tl 123I 111In 67Ga 81Rb-81mKr others

131I,90Y 153Sm,186Re 188W-188Re 166Ho,177Lu, Others

+ emitters for PET 18F, 11C,13N,15O 86Y, 124I 68Ge-68Ga 82Sr-82Rb

a-emitters: 225Ac-213Bi 211At, 223Ra needles for 149Tb brachytherapy: 103Pd, e--emitters: 125I

sealed sources and applicators: 192Ir, 182Ta, 137Cs Others

60Co

Gamma Knife

125I

microspheres 90Sr or 90Y, others

137Cs blood cell irradiation

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 Radioactive

traccers which emmit gamma rays within the body are given by injection inhalation or orally Radioactive tracers are short lived isotopes linked to chemical compounds which permit speciic physiological processes to be scrutinised Emitted gamma rays are detected by gamma camera & build image from the point from which radiationis emitted.image is enhanced by computer & viewed on monitor.. thus a organ can be viewed from several angles Page 52

now a days PET & PETCT are also used instead of gamma camera.. They detects positrons emitted from radionucleides
imaging

FUNCTIONAL Mean

effffective dose is 4.6 mSv per diagnostic procedure

Advantage

over routine x ray imaging1.both bone & soft issue can be imaged successfully 2.functional status of organ is determined

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forms

teletherapy/EBRT (external RNT)

brachytherapy (internal RNT)

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The imaged property is the distribution of radionuclidelabeled agents injected in the body: radiopharmaceuticals Produce functional images of tracer concentrations related to pathophysiological Process Radioisotope- An unstable isotope of an element that decays or disintegrates spontaneously, emitting radiation Radioactive decay of radioisotopes leads to the emission of -, -, -, and x radiation depending on the radionuclide involved

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 The for

range of -, -particles is small

in vivo imaging using external

Radioisotope imaging is restricted to the use of radio nuclides emitting photons with energies > 50 keV

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Anger camera (1960s) Radioisotope imaging is restricted to the use of radio nuclides emitting photons with energies > 50 keV Lead collimator (incidence orientation selection) Scintillation camera of NaI (sodium iodide) Photomultipliers (PMT)

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Static planar scintigraphy Dynamic planar scintigraphy Emission Computed Tomography (ECT) Single Photon Computed Tomography (SPECT) Positron Emission Tomography (PET

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Single Photon Computed Tomography (SPECT)

Same principle of Gamma camera but with 2 or 3 rotating cameras to record projection data more efficiently In CT we know the position of the emitting source and the detection point; in SPECT only the detection point

In CT absorption is the essence of the imaging process; in SPECT attenuation degrades the images Attenuation must be compensated for (single scan-line of Page 61 photons to estimate transmission coefficient)

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 Gated

SPECT particularly useful in cardiac perfusion studies Some systems with slip ring technology

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Radiotracer produces positrons, which are annihilated within around 1mm from their origin

After annihilation 2 -ray photons are emitted along a Line Of Response (LOR)
Electronic coincidence detectors (12ns), which eliminates lead collimators and allows higher efficiency In PET it is easier to correct for attenuation
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 AUGER

electron emitters for therapy

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+ emitters
for in vivo dosimetry

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Scintigraphic abdominal images 5 & 24 h p.i. affected by carcinoid with extensive hepatic and paraaortal metastases

Patients: 3 patients with metastases of carcinoid tumor (histologically confirmed) . No therapy with unlabeled somatostatin > 4 weeks Age: 46 67 years, male All were candidates for a possible 90Y-DOTATOC therapy Page 73

Physical Radionuclide Half-Life

Americium-241 432 yrs Bismuth-213 46 min Cesium-137 30 yrs Cobalt-60 5.27 yrs Cromium-51 28 days Dysprosium-165 2hr Erbium-169 9.4 days Holmium-166 26 hr Hydrogen-3 12 yrs Iridium-192 74 days

Use__________________
Smoke Detectors TAT(targeted alpha therapy) Food Irradiator EBRT,sterilising label RBC & quantify GI protein loss aggregated OH in synovectomy arthritis pain-synovial joints liver tumors(,Rx) Exit Signs Industrial Radiography,BT wires Page 74

Physical Radionuclide Half-Life Use Iodine-125 60 days Brachtherapy(prostate,brain) - DVT leg, GFR kidney Radioimmunoassys Iodine-131 8 days Imaging & treating throid cancer, - abnormal liver function , renal blood flow urinary tract obstruction Iron-59 46 days Study Fe metabolism in spleen Lutetium-177 6.7 days Rx of small endocrine tumors Molybdenum-99 66 hr PARENT in generator for Tc99m Palladium-103 17 days prostate ca-BT permanent seed implant

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Radionuclide Phosphorus-32 Plutonium-239 Pottasium-42 Radon-222 Rhenium-186 Rhenium-188 Samarium-153 Selenium-75

Physical Half-Life Use______________________ 14 days Rx of Polycythemia vera 24,000 yrs Nuclear Weapon 12 hr Detemination of exchangeable pottasium in coronary blood flow 4 days Environmental Level 3.8 days pain reief in bone caner 17 hr -iradiate coronary arteries from an angioplasty baloon 47 hr pain relief in metastatic bone 20 120 days study production of digestive enzymes (Selenomethionine)
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Physical Radionuclide Half-Life Use______________ Sodium-24 15 hrs study electrolytes in body Strontium-89 50 days relief from pain of prostate & bone cancer Strontium-90 29 yrs Eye Therapy Device Technetium-99m 6 hrs Diagnostic Imaging (skeleton,myocardium,lung) Xenon-133 5 days lung ventilation studies Ytterbium-169 32 days CSF studies Ytterbium-177 1.9 hrs progenitor ofLu-177
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Physical Radionuclide Half-Life

Use_________________________

Fluorine-18 PET(brain,heart physiology,pathology) Cobalt-57 272 days marker to estimate organ size Gallium-67 78 hr Gallium-68 68 min Iodine-123 13 hr Thallium-20173 hr tumor imaging, localisation of inflammatory leison(infective) positron emitter(PET) of thyroid function . of CAD , MI
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 allow

to separate chemically shortlived radioactive daughter nuclei with good characteristics for medical imaging from long-lived radioactive parent nuclei. Typical techniques used are chromatographic absorption, distillation or phase separation
method is in particular applied for the separation of the rather short-lived 99Tcm (T 99Mo =6 h) from the long lived 1/2 (T1/2=2.7 d).
Milking cow analogy

This

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Applying the radioactive decay law the growth of activity of the daughter nuclei A2 with respect of the initial activity of the mother nucleus A10 can be expressed in terms of their respective decay constants 2 and 2 with 2 >> 1:
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52-year

old

female breast cancer

ANT

POST

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 Phosphorus-32
Rhenium-186 Samarium-153 Strontium-89 Rhenium-188

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Gadolinium enhanced SPECT image

Radioisotope cisternography

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