Air pollution:

It can be defined as an addition to our atmosphere of any material which will have a deleterious effect on life upon our planet. Pollutants are produced by the incomplete burning of the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber. The major pollutants emitted from the exhaust due to incomplete combustion are:
1. Carbon monoxide(CO) 2. Hydrocarbons(HC) 3. Oxides of nitrogen(NOx)

. SPARK IGNITION ENGINE EMISSIONS

The following are the three main sources from which pollutants are emitted from the S.I. The crankcase. Where piston blow-by fumes and oil mist are vented to the atmosphere. The fuel system. Where evaporative emissions from the carburettor or petrol injection air intake and fuel tank are vented to the atmosphere The exhaust system. Where the products of incomplete combustion are tail pipe into the atmosphere

Crankcase Emission
Piston ring blow-by :
The piston and its rings are designed to form a gastight seal between the sliding piston sprit and the cylinder walls. However, in practice there will always be some compressed charge and burnt fumes which manage to escape past the compression and oil control piston rings and therefore enter the crankcase.

 Piston blow-by increases with engine speed and, in particular, as the piston rings and cylinder bore wears, the blow-by becomes more noticeable in the upper speed range. Blow-by takes place between the piston ring gap, piston-ring to piston-groove clearance and in the T.D.C. region where the piston ring circumferential shape can not accurately follow the contour of an oval or bell mounter cylinder wall. Besides effectively reducing the engine compression ratio and the power developed, the effects of piston blow-by are two-fold : (i) It can lead to a high concentration of combustible air-fuel mixture which could cause an explosion in the crankcase.

(ii) The air-fuel mixture, partially burnt and fully burnt vapour fumes, will condense and contaminate the engine's lubricating oil. Since it is impossible to eliminate piston blow-by completely, an organized connection is deliberately created which circulates the crankcase and rocker or camshaft cover spaces and consequently carries the unwanted fumes out with it. The removal of blow-by gases and vapour fumes from the crankcase is obtained by creating a partial depression at the outlet location so that blow-by gases under pressure (escaping between the piston and cylinder wall) are attracted towards the lower pressure region of the crankcase, at which point they are expelled.

Following are the two methods of creating the extraction depression : 1. The road draught crankcase ventilation system. The unacceptable limitation of this system of crankcase ventilation, due to expulsion of gas and fume vapour (FTC and CO) into the atmosphere thereby contributing to pollution, has made this method of internal purging of the engine obsolete. 2.The induction manifold vacuum positive crankcase ventilation system. The blow-by HC emissions are about 20% of the total HC emission from the engine ; this is increased to about 30% if the rings are worn.

Evaporative Emission: Evaporative emissions account for 15 to 25% of total hydrocarbon emission from a gasoline angthe. The following are two main sources of evaporative emissions : i)The fuel tank ii)The carburettor. (i) Fuel tank losses. The main factors governing the tank emissions are fuel volatility and do ambient temperature but the tank design and location can also influence the emissions as location afre'rt the temperature. Insulation of tank and vapour collection systems have all been explored a view to reduce the tank emission. ii) Carburettor losses. Carburettor emission may be divided with following two categories : (i) Running losses (ii) Parking losses.

Although most internally vented carburettors have an external vent which open at idle throttle position, the existing pressure forces prevent outflow of vapours to the atmosphere. Internally vented carburettor may enrich the mixture which in turn increases exhaust emission. Carburettor losses are significant only during hot condition when the vehicle is in operation. The fuel volatility also affects the carburettor emissions.
Exhaust Emission The different constituents which are exhausted from S.I. engine and different factors which affect percentages of different constituents are discussed below :

1.Hydrocarbons (HC):
The emission amount of HC (due to incomplete combustion) is closely related to : -design variables -operating variable -mode of operation The following factors affect HC emission : i. Surface Volume ii. Wall quenching.

(iii) Incomplete combustion.

When the mixture supplied is rich or lean ; the flame propagation becomes weak which causes incomplete combustion and results in HC emission. The incomplete flame propagation is caused by the following factors : a. Law charge temperature b. Too rich or too lean mixture c. Poor condition of the ignition system d. Non-uniform fuel in the mixture supplied to the engine e. Large exhaust residual gases left in the cylinder. (iv) Spark plug timing. It is observed that HC emission is reduced by retarding the spark plug timing during low speed (lower than 40 km/h) but has no effect when running at 40 km/h. (v) Compression ratio. It has been observed through experiments that emission of HC in exhaust is decreased with an increase in compression ratio.

2. Carbon monoxide (CO) : -If the oxidation of CO to CO2 is not complete, CO remains in the exhaust. -It can be said theoretically that, the petrol engine exhaust can be made free from CO by operating it at A/F ratio = 15. However, some CO is always present in the exhaust even at lean mixture and can be as high as 1 per cent. -The percentage of CO increases during engine idling but decreases with speed. -Whatever may be condition of running at any load or speed, and A/F ratio, it is not possible to completely eliminate CO and 0.5 percent is considered a reasonable goal. -CO emissions 2re lowest during acceleration and at steady speeds. They are, however, high during and reach maximum during deceleration.

Oxides of nitrogen ( NO) : -Oxides of nitrogen occur mainly in the form of NO and NO2
and are generally formed at high temperature. -The maximum NO levels are observed with AJF ratios of about 10 percent above stoichiometric. More air than this reduces peak temperature and therefore NO concentration falls, even free 02 is available. -The following factors affect the formation of NOT: a) A / F ratio b) r.p.m. c) Angle of advance. The decreasing angle of advance decreases appreciably the formation of NOx

-It has also been observed that NO x increases with increasing manifold pressure, engine load and compression ratio. This characteristic is different from HC and CO emission which are nearly independent of engine load except for idling and deceleration. Lead emission Lead emissions come only from S.I. engines. In the fuel, lead is present as lead tetroethyl or tetramethyl, to control the self ignition tendency of fuel-air mixtures that is responsible for knock (to improve the octane rating of the fuel).

 Major portion of the lead that enters the engine is emitted from the exhaust which forms very small particles of oxides and oxyhalides in the atmosphere. A portion of the lead particles falls to the ground very quickly, others are small enough to remain suspended in the atmosphere sometime, before they fall out, usually after coagulation with other dusty material in air. It may not be possible to eliminate lead completely from all petrols immediately because a large number of existing engines rely upon the lubrication provided by a lead film to prevent rapid wear of exhaust valve seats. However, a very small lead content would be adequate for the purpose. Following points are worth noting : Both the flow rate and pollutant concentration, for exhaust emissions, can change with the mode operation. Both must be considered in determining emissions.

 Under constant high speed conditions, exhaust HC concentrations are low while the flow rates are high. During accelerations the flow rate is low but HC concentration is high. The concentration of HC in the crankcase and evaporative losses is virtually independent of operating conditions, but the flow rates from each of these sources change during various operations. Thus, on km basis CO and HC emissions decrease with increasing driving speed while NO emissions are relatively not affected. In a poorly maintained engine the exhaust pollution is more. An automatic choke sticking in the closed position or a very dirty air cleaner element can reduce air-fuel ratio, generally increasing HC and CO emissions. A misfire allows an entire air-fuel charge to be exhausted without combustion.

SI. ENGINE EMISSION CONTROL

The main methods, among various methods, for S.1. engine emission control are : a. Modification in the engine design and operating parameters. b. Treatment of exhaust products of combustion. c. Modification of the fuels. a. Modification in the Engine Design and Operating Parameters Engine design modification improves upon the emission quality. A few parameters which improve an emission are discussed below : 1. Combustion chamber configuration : Modification of combustion chamber involves avoiding flame quenching zones where combustion might otherwise be incomplete and resulting in high HC emission. This includes :

Reduced surface to volume (SRI) ratio ; Reduced squish area ; Reduced space around piston ring ; Reduced distance of the top piston ring from the top of the piston. 2. Lower compression ratio : Lower compression ratio reduces the quenching effect by reducing the quenching area, thus reducing HC. Lower compression ratio also reduces NO x emissions due to lower maximum temperature. Lower compression, however, reduces thermal efficiency and increases fuel consumption.

3.Modified induction system: Supplying designes A/F ratio under all conditions of load and power in multi cylinder engine is difficult. This can be achieved by proper design of induction system 4.Ignition timing: The ignition timing control is so adjusted as to provide normal required spark advance during cruising and retard the same for idle running. 5.Reduced value overlap: Increased ovelap allows some fresh charge to escape directly and increase emission level. This can be controlled by reducing value overlap.

Exhaust Gas Oxidation

The exhaust gas coming out of exhaust manifold is treated to reduce HC and CO emissions. 1.After-burner: An after burner is a burner where air is supplied to the exhaust gases and mixture is burnt with the help of ignition system.

2. Exhaust manifold reactor :

The exhaust manifold reactor is a further development of after-burner where the design is changed so as to minimize the heat loss and to provide sufficient time for mixing of exhaust and secondary air.

3. Catalytic converter
A catalytic converter is a device which is placed in the vehicle exhaust system to reduce HC and CO by oxidizing catalyst and NO by reducing catalyst. The basic requirements of a catalytic converter are : i)High surface area of the catalyst for better reactions. ii)Good chemical stability to prevent any deterioration in performance. iii)Low volume heat capacity to reach the operating temperatures.

iv)Physical durability with attrition resistance. v)Minimum pressure drop during the flow of exhaust gases through the catalyst "bed ; this will not increase back pressure of the engine. Oxidation catalytic reactions CO, HC and 02 from air are catalytically converted to CO2 and H20 and number of catalysts are known to be effective noble metals like platinum and plutonium, copper, vanadium, iron, cobalt, nickel, chromium etc.

Reduction catalytic reactions

The primary concept is to offer the NO molecule an activation site, say nickel or copper grids in the presence of CO but not 02 which will cause oxidation, to from N2 and CO2. The NO may react with a metal molecule to form an oxide which then in turn, may react with CO to restore the metal molecule. Rhodium is best catalyst to control NO x but AI F ratio must be within a narrow range of 14.6 : 1 to 14.7 : 1.

Drawbacks of catalytic converter

a) Due to the exothermic reactions in the catalyst bed the exhaust systems are hotter than normal. b) Cars equipped with such converter should not use leaded fuel as lead destroys complete catalytic activity. c) If the fuel contains sulphur (as diesel oil) emission of SO3 is increased.

Three-way, Two-way and noble metal catalytic converters : 1. Three-way catalytic converter If an engine is operated at all times with an air-fuel ratio close to stoichiometric, then both NO reduction and CO and HC oxidation can be done in a single catalyst bed. The catalyst effectively brings the exhaust gas composition to a near equilibrium state at these exhaust conditions, i.e., a composition of CO2, H20 and N2. Enough reducing gas will be present to reduce NO, and enough 02 to oxidize the CO and hydrocarbons (HC). Such a converter is called threeway catalytic converter, since it removes all the three pollutants. There is a narrow band of air-fuel ratios near stoichiometric in which high conversion efficiencies for all three pollutants are available. Commercial three-way catalysts contain platinum, rhodium with some A2 03, NiO and Ce02. Alumina is the preferred support material.

2.Two way catalytic converter:

In this the exhaust line has two catalytic converters. A reduction catalyst is required to reduce Nox. An oxidation catalyst is placed downstream of the reduciton catalyst to convert the excess HC and CO. The conversion efficiencies are very high at normal exhaust temperature.

3.Noble metal catalytic converter:

They are use noble metals as catalyst materials. Platinum or platinum and palladium are applied to cermic support which has been treated with an aluminium oxide wash coat. This results in an extremely porous structure providing a large surface area to stimulate the combination of O2 with HC and CO. This oxidation process converts most of these compounds to water vapour and CO2.

Blow-by Control
The basic principle of crankcase blow-by control system is recirculation of vapours the inlet manifold.

Evaporation Emission Control Device (EECD)

In one of general motors system the filter pipe is sealed with a pressure cap. It comprises a built in vacuum relief to allow air to enter as the fuel gets consumed. An inverted bowl is placed inside the tank. It traps air as tank is filled to allow for liquid fuel volume expansion. The air gets released from the bowl by two small orifices in the top. The tank is ventilated to a cannister which has activated carbon particles. This can hold 0.2 kg of fuel vapour upon shut down. But when the engine is running, filtered air is drawn through the bottom of cannister, removing the absorbed vapour. This mixture is sent to air cleaner or to the intake manifold, in proportion to air flow rate.

Control of Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

The concentration of oxides of nitrogen in the exhaust is closely related to the peak cycle temperature. The following are the three methods (investigated so far) for reducing peak cycle temperature and thereby reducing NO emission.
1.Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) 2.Catalyst 3.Water injection.

1. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) This method is commonly used to reduce NO x in petrol as well as diesel engines. In S.I engines, about 10 percent recirculation reduces NOx emission by 50 percent. Unfortunately, the consequently poorer combustion directly increases HC emission and calls for mixture enrichment to restore combustion regularity which gives a further indirect increase of both HC and CO.

A portion (about 10 to 15%) of the exhaust gases is recirculated to cylinder intake charge, and this reduces the quantity of 02 available for combustion. The exhaust gas for recirculation is taken through an orifice and passed through control valve for regulation of the quantity of recirculation. 2.Catalyst: A few tlypes of catalysts have been tested to reduce the emission of NOx , a coper catalyst has been used in the presence of CO for this purpose

3.Water injection.
It has been observed that the specific fuel consumption decreases a few percent at medium water injection rate. Attempts have been made to use water as a device for controlling the NO. This method, because of its complexity, is rarely used.

Total Emission Control Packages

The following two systems/packages have been developed to achieve the required results 1. Thermal reactor package 2. Catalytic converter package. Using this approach, the following are the three basic methods of emission control a. Thermal reactors, which rely on homogeneous oxidation to control CO and HC; b. Oxidation catalyst for CO and HC c. Dual catalyst system (here a reduction catalyst for NO and an oxidation catalyst for CO and HC are connected in series). -Where control of Nox is required with the first two methods, EGR is added to the system.

1.Thermal reactor package : A thermal reactor is a chamber which is designed to provide adequate residence time for allowing appreciable oxidation of CO and HC to take place. For enhancing the conversion of CO to CO2 the exhaust temperature is increased by retarding the spark. 2.Catalytic converter package: The working principle of this package is to control the emission levels of various pollutants by changing the chemical characteristics of the exhaust gases.

The greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric green house gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface and the lower atmosphere, it results in an elevation of the average surface temperature above what it would be in the absence of the gases.

Emission Measurement Methods

Classification of Techniques
CHEMICAL ORSAT, GC, HPLC, HPIC
PHYSICAL AA, X-RAY, TCD, PID, FID, MS, PARAMAGNETISM OPTICAL CLD, NDIR, NDUV, FTIR, TDLS

Approved Analytical Techniques SPECIES

CO CO2 NOX O2 O3 SO2 THC VOCs PAH ALDEHYDES PM (TSP, PM10, PM2.5) METALS NON-METALLIC IONS

INSTRUMENT
NDIR ABSORPTION NDIR ABSORPTION CHEMILUMINESCENCE PARAMAGNETISM UV ABSORPTION NDIR/UV ABSORPTION FID GC + DETECTOR HPLC HPLC AA, XRF, TCA AA, XRF HPIC

Non Dispersive Infrared (NDIR)

CO CO2

[CO, CO2]

C3H8

NO

ABSORBANCE WAVE LENGTH

CO C3H8 : : 4.7 mm 3.5 mm CO2 NO : :

4.3 mm 5.4 mm

Non Dispersive Infrared (NDIR)

SAMPLE OUTLET

(contd)
DETECTOR

Io
IR SOURCE

SAMPLE INLET

L dL
MEASURE ABSORBANCE (-dI)

I ( ) I o e ( )CL
BEER-LAMBERT LAW

d I ( ) C I d L C ln ( I / I o ) L ( )

Magnetic Pneumatic Analyzer (MPA)

COIL
ELECTROMAGNET

[O2]

O2

P=1/2 H2 c C
DETECTOR

P : PRESSURE AT THE MAGNET H : MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY c : O2 PERMEABILITY CONSTANT C : O2 CONCENTRATION N2

SAMPLE GAS

Flame Ionization Detector (FID)

FLAME ELECTRODE

[THC]

OUTPUT

CURRENT # CARBON ATOMS IN SAMPLE

H2

SAMPLE GAS

Chemiluminescence Detector (CLD)

REACTIONS:
2NO + O2 2NO2

[NOx]

2NO + O3 NO2*

2NO2* + 1 / 2 O2 NO2 + hu

NO NO2 NO2*
hu

PHOTODIODE OUTPUT hu [NO]

O3

NOx Converter

NOx NO NO2 NO2

NOx CONVERTER
NO + 1/2 O2

NO

CLD

Gas Chromatograph (GC)

CHROMATOGRAM
RESPONSE

INJECTOR

RETENTION TIME, MIN.

DETECTOR

GC
GAS SAMPLE

(FID, TCD, ECD, MS)

INTEGRATOR

SEPARATION

DETECTION

DATA ACQUISITION

Theory of Gas Chromatography

SEPARATION COLUMN

CARRIER GAS

STATIONARY LIQUID PHASE

COLUMN
HIGH SOLUBILITY LOW VAPOUR PRESSURE LOW SOLUBILITY HIGH VAPOUR PRESSURE

EC-III Flow Diagram

PUMP NOx CONVERTER COOLER

DRAIN SAMPLE

CO

CO2

THC

O2

NOx

NDIR

FID

MPA

CLD EXHAUST

Optical Techniques

IN SITU VS. REMOTE SAMPLING ADVANTAGES

REAL-TIME SAMPLING & ANALYSIS NO SAMPLE CONDITIONING ABILITY TO SAMPLE INACCESSIBLE REGIONS LONG-RANGE MONITORING (1 - 10 km) PATH-AVERAGED INTEGRATION

DISADVANTAGES

SPECTRAL INTERFERENCE (H2O, CO2, etc.) INCOMPLETE IR/UV DATA BASE FOR POLLUTANTS MEDIUM SENSITIVITY NOT YET EPA-APPROVED (EXCEPT FTIR)

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

BASED ON SCANNING MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER DETECTS MULTIPLE IR SPECTRA:

(CO, CO2, NOX, N2O, ALDEHYDES)

HIGH SENSITIVITY: 100 ppb APPROVED BY EPA (METHOD TO-16)

Tunable Laser Diode Spectroscopy (TDLS)

COMPACT, RUGGED RAPID TUNING, FAST RESPONSE HIGHLY MONOCHROMATIC HIGH SELECTIVITY

LARGE DYNAMIC RANGE

HIGH SENSITIVITY: 1 ppb GAS
TDL DETECTOR

SAMPLE
MULTIPASS CELL

BEER-LAMBERT LAW

I ( ) I oe ( )CnL

Particulate Matter (PM) Analyzers

COARSE (natural) FINE (anthropogenic) SO4 NH4+ NO3Pb C
2-

Mass Concentration

Fe
Ca

Si Na Cl Al 10

0.1 1 Diameter, mm

BATCH

FILTERS + WET CHEMISTRY TAPERED ELEMENT OSCILLATING MICROBALANCE (TEOM) INTEGRATED PARTICLE SIZING SYSTEM (IPSS)

REAL-TIME

Integrated Particle Sizing System (IPSS)

Driving cycle
A driving cycle is a series of data points representing the speed of a vehicles versus time. Driving cycles are produced by different countries and organizations to assess the performance of vehicles in various ways, as for example fuel consumption and polluting emissions. Fuel consumption and emission tests are performed on chassis dynamometers. Tailpipe emissions are collected and measured to indicate the performance of the vehicle. Another use for driving cycles is in vehicle simulations. More specifically, they are used in propulsion system simulations (simulators designed specifically to model the drive system only and predict performance of internal combustion engines, transmissions, electric drive systems, batteries, fuel cell systems, etc.).

There are two types of driving cycle: 1. Transient driving cycles involve many changes, representing
the constant speed changes typical of on-road driving. 2. Modal driving cycles involve protracted periods at constant speeds.

Data Collection
Data collection from the test road is the most important activity. Test road (e.g. city, highway, etc.) measured data are the inputs to the 'Drive Cycle' preparation activity. The procedure involves instrumentation of the test vehicle to collect information while driving on the test road.

There are two major types of data to be collected: I. Driver behavior vs Road data
II. vehicle vs Road data.

The vehicle vs road data are used to prepare the road drive cycle and the driver data to prepare the Driver model. for example, to calculate a vehicle's fuel consumption either in computer simulation or in chassis dynamo-meter which is going to be launched in India, it must run on an Indian road with an Indian Driver. Indian Drive Cycle with a European driver model does not give a fair comparison of the on road trials.

Driving Cycle Design

The "Drive-cycle" basically is the representative of the road. Drive cycles are used to reduce the expensive of on road tests, time of test and fatigue of the test engineer. The whole idea is to bring the road to the test lab (a chassis dynamo-meter) or to the computer simulation.

Two kinds of drive cycle can be made. Distance Dependent (Speed Vs Distance Vs Altitude) Time Dependent (Speed Vs Time Vs Gear Shift). The Distance Dependent Is The actual replica of the test road. whereas Time Dependent is the compressed version of the actual time taken to conduct the test on road

Emission Norms
Bharat stage emission standards are emission standards instituted by the Government of India to regulate the output of air pollutants from internal combustion engine equipment, including motor vehicles. The standards and the timeline for implementation are set by the Central Pollution Control Board under the Ministry of Environment & Forests. Indian Emission Standards

 The first Indian emission regulations were idle emission limits which became effective in 1989. These idle emission regulations were soon replaced by mass emission limits for both petrol (1991) and diesel (1992) vehicles, which were gradually tightened during the 1990s. Since the year 2000, India started adopting European emission and fuel regulations for four-wheeled light-duty and for heavy-dc. Indian own emission regulations still apply to two- and three-wheeled vehicles.