Fluid Mechanics and Machinery For II MechRevision May2013

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS DIMENSION: MEASURABLE CHARACTERISTIC EXAMPLE: LENGTH, MASS, TIME NOTATIONS: L, M, & T UNIT: STANDARD MEASUREMENT OF THE CHARACTERISTIC EXAMPLE: Meter for L, Kg for M, and Sec for T NOTATIONS: m, kg and s
FLUID PROPERTIES Density: Mass per unit Volume measured in kg/m3
Specific gravity: Ratio of density of substance to density of water s = / w = / 1000 Specific Weight: Weight per unit volume measured in N/m3 w = g = 9.81 Notations: Density: Specific Gravity: s Specific Weight: w
FLUID PROPERTIES Buoyancy: When a body is immersed wholly or partially in a liquid it is subjected to an upward force. The tendency of this upward force to lift (buoy) the body up against action of gravity is called buoyancy.
FLUID PROPERTIES Viscosity: is a property which enables the fluid to offer resistance to relative motion between adjacent layers. Absolute Viscosity : Notation is ; Unit is Poise or N s / m2 1 N s / m2 = 10 poise Kinematic Viscosity: Notation is : Unit is Stokes or m2/s ; 1 m2/s = 104 stokes
FLUID PROPERTIES Compressibility: is the ratio of Volumetric Strain to Change in Pressure (direct stress). Compressibility: Notation is ; Unit is m2/N Bulk Modulus: Notation is K; Unit is N/m2 K = 1 / Vapour Pressure: The pressure at which the liquid tend to evaporate. When the gas above the surface is saturated, it is saturation pressure. Vapour Pressure increases with increase in temperature.
FLUID PROPERTIES Surface Tension: is the property caused by the force of cohesion at the free surface. Surface Tension: Notation is ; Unit is N/m Capillarity: Phenomenon by which a liquid rises into a thin glass tube above or below its general level. h = 4 cos / ( g d) h is capillary rise in m; is surface tension in N/m; is angle of contact with liquid surface is density in kg/m3; g is gravity in m/s2; d is diameter of tube in m
Gas Laws Boyles Law: can be written as: p V = p1V1 = p2V2 = constant This relationship between pressure and volume is called Boyle's Law in his honor. Boyle's law asserts that pressure and volume are inversely proportional to each other at fixed temperature
Gas Laws Charles Law: can be written as: V / T = V1/T1 = V2/T2 = constant where V is the volume of the gas; and T is the absolute temperature. Charles's law states that volume and temperature are directly proportional to each other as long as pressure is held constant.
Gas Laws
Combined Law: The ratio between the pressure-volume product and the temperature of a system remains constant. This can be stated mathematically as p V / T = k ; where: p is the pressure V is the volume ; T is the temperature measured in kelvins ; k is a constant (J/K) For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law can be written as: p V / T = p1 V1 / T1 = p2 V2 / T2
Flow Characteristics Pressure: Notation is P; Unit is N/m2 Temperature: Notation is T; Unit is K or oC Density: Notation is ; Unit is kg/m3 Specific Volume: Notation is v ; Unit is m3/kg Velocity: Notation is C or V; also u, v, w; Unit is m/s Volume flow rate: Notation is Q ; Unit is m3/s Mass flow rate: Notation is m ; Unit is kg/s
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SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME System:
A system is a region in space, or fixed collection of matter enclosed by a real or imaginary boundary. The boundary can be rigid or flexible and the system can be fixed in space or moving in space. What are the components involved? System, boundary, environment or surroundings.
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SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME Boundary: It is the surface which separates the system from the surroundings. It can be real or imaginary, fixed or flexible. Surrounding: Everything external to the system is surrounding or environment Universe: System and surrounding together is called universe
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SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME Closed System: A system in which there is no mass flow to and from the system across the boundary. It can interact with its surroundings through work and heat transfer. The boundary is free to move in closed system. Control Mass: Control Volume in a closed system is also called control mass since there is no mass flow to and from the system across the boundary.
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SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME Open System:A system with fixed space (and hence boundary) which allows a continuous flow of matter. A control volume is an open system. It has a fixed space but does not contain fixed mass or matter. The identity of matter keeps changing with time. Hence called open system. Control Surface: The boundary in an open system is fixed and hence called control surface. Control Volume: An open system has fixed volume and hence called control volume.
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CONTINUITY EQUATION
Mass flow rate entering = Mass flow rate leaving A C = 1 A1 C1 = 2 A2 C2 = Constant / = A/A = C/C u/ x + v/ y + w/ z = 0
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ENERGY EQUATION
Types of Energy: Pressure head or Pressure Energy
Velocity Head or Kinetic Energy and
Potential Head or Potential Energy
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Pressure Energy: Formula: P/; Unit J/kg OR Formula: P/g ; Unit m Velocity Energy: Formula: v2/2 ; OR Formula: v2/2g ; Head Energy: Formula: z; OR Formula: gz; (a) + (b) + (c ) we get
(a)
Unit J/kg Unit m
(b)
Unit m Unit J/kg
(c )
Total Head or Total Energy = p/ g + V2/2g + Z

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ENERGY EQUATION Eulers Equation: p/ + VV + g z = 0 Bernoullis Equation for ideal fluid: p1/ g + V12/2g + Z1 = p2/ g + V22/2g + Z2 = Constant Bernoullis Equation for real fluid: p1/ g + V12/2g + Z1 = p2/ g + V22/2g + Z2 + hL hL is loss in the pipe in m of liquid.
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ENERGY EQUATION
Bernoullis Equation for ideal fluid: p1/ g + V12/2g + Z1 = p2/ g + V22/2g + Z2 = Constant Assumptions: Ideal Fluid,Non viscous, = 0 Steady Flow, V/ t = 0 Uniform Flow, V/ x = 0 Irrotational Flow No Energy Loss in the pipe
Applications:
Venturimeter, Orifice meter, Rotameter, pitot tube, Flow Nozzle
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MOMENTUM EQUATION Law of Conservation of Momentum: Net force acting on a mass of fluid is equal to change in momentum of flow per unit time in that direction. Momentum Equation: F = d (mV) / dt
Applications: To find RESULTANT FORCE

acting on pipe bends, Reducers, moving blades, jet propulsion etc.
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IMPULSE MOMENTUM EQUATION Momentum Equation: F = d (mV) / dt
Impulse Moment Equation: F dt = d (mV)
The impulse of force F acting on mass m for a short interval dt is equal to change of momentum d (mV) in the direction of force.
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MOMENT OF MOMENTUM EQUATION The resulting torque acting on a rotating fluid is equal to the rate of change of moment of momentum Moment of Momentum Equation: T = Q ( V2r2 V1r1) Where is density in kg/m3, Q is flow rate in m3/s, V2 and V1 are whirl velocities at r2 and r1 respectively. Flow rate m = gQ ; Work Done = T = T = Q ( V2r2 V1r1) Hence work done per sec per unit weight WD = ( V2u2 V1u1)/g
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The diameter of impeller of a pump is 1.2 m and its peripheral speed is 9 m/s. Water enters radially and is discharged from impeller with a velocity whose radial component is 1.5 m/s. The vanes are curved backwards at exit and make an angle of 30o with periphery. If the pump discharges 3.4 m3/m , find the turning moment on the shaft. Soln: T = Q ( Vu2 r2 V u1 r1) Vu2 = u2 Vf2 cot 2 = 9 1.5 cot 30 = 6.4 m/s
T = Q ( Vu2 r2 V u1 r1) = 1000 x (3.4/60) (6.4 x 0.6 0)

= 217 N-m
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Vw2 u2 u2 v2 Vw2
u2
vR2
v2
vR2
vf2
v2
vf2
vR2
vR1
v1 u1 Radial Blade
vR1 v1 u1
vR1 v1 u1
Forward Curved l Blade
Backward Curved Blade

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PROBLEMS
Formulae: Fx = Q (V1 Cos 1 V2 Cos 2 ) + p1A1 Cos 1 p2A2 Cos 2 Fy= Q (V1 Sin 1 V2 Sin 2 ) + p1A1 Sin 1 p2A2 Sin 2 are forces exerted by the fluid on the pipe.
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END OF UNIT ONE
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FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 2 FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS
LAMINAR FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS Velocity Profile is parabolic u = (1/4)( dp/dx)(R2 r2) Umax = (1/4)( dp/dx)R2 .(a) ..(b)
Combining the above two equations
u = Umax[1 (r/R)2]
Uavg = Umax / 2
..(c )
..(d)
Combining the relations (b) (c ) and (d) r = 0.707 R at which Uavg occcurs
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LAMINAR FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS Pressure Drop in terms of average velocity h = (p1 p2) / g = 32 Uavg L / (gD2) This is Hagen Poiseulle equation h = 32 Uavg / ( D ) (L / D) Multiplying and dividing by Uavg/2 and rearranging, = 64 / ( UavgD ) (L / D) (Uavg2/2g) = 4 f (L /D) (Uavg2/2g) where f = 16/Re This is Darcy Weisbach relation
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BOUNDARY LAYER CONCEPT In a flow over surface, effect of viscosity causes the fluid to stick to the wall. This layer will have zero velocity relative to the surface. Hence a velocity distribution is built up near the surface.
Velocity gradient is large at the surface. A small distance away from the surface the velocity asymptotically approaches the upstream velocity. This region is called boundary layer.
Outside the boundary layer, flow can be assumed to be non-viscous flow.
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Laminar and Boundary Layer
Turbulent
Laminar
Laminar Sub Layer
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BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS Boundary layer thickness ( ) is the distance from the wall where the velocity differs by 1% from the external velocity (U) . At y = , u = 0.99 U
For a simple velocity profile, u / U = y / ,

Solution for is, = 3.46 x / (Rex)1/2
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DISPLACEMENT THICKNESS Displacement thickness is the distance by which the external stream lines are shifted owing to the formation of boundary layer. It is given by
* = 0 [1 (u / U )] dy
For a simple velocity profile, u / U = y / ,
* = 0 [1 (y/ )] dy
Solution for * is, * = /2 = 1.73 x / (Rex)1/2
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ENERGY GRADIENT Total Energy Line (TEL) or Energy Gradient Line (EGL) Total Energy per unit weight = p/ g + V2/2g + Z This is used for drawing the TEL or EGL. When fluid flows through a pipe, we can measure the the total head as above at various points along the flow length and plot. Since thee is a loss of head along the flow direction, TEL or EGL decreases along the flow direction.
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HYDRAULIC GRADIENT Piezometric Head H = p/ g + Z Hydralic Gradient Line (HGL): When fluid flow through a pipe, we can measure the piezometric head at various points along the flow length and plot.
HGL may fall or rise along the direction of flow HGL is always below EGL Vertical Intercept = EGL HGL = V2/2g
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Hydraulic Gradient and Total Energy Lines Fig.1 Hydraulic gradient and total energy line for (a) an inclined pipe connecting 2 reservoirs
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Hydraulic Gradient and Total Energy Lines Fig.1 Hydraulic gradient and total energy line for (b) horizontal pipe connecting 2 reservoirs
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Hydraulic Gradient and Total Energy Lines
Consider a long pipe carrying liquid from a reservoir A to a reservoir B as shown in Fig.1. At several points along the pipeline let piezometers be installed. The liquid will rise in the piezometers to certain heights corresponding to the pressure intensity at each section. The height of the liquid surface above the axis of the pipe in the piezometer at any section will be equal to the pressure head (p/w) at the section.
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Total Energy in y axis Datum along x axis plotted to scale If all these points are joined we get a straight sloping line known as 'total energy line'.
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Piezometric Head H = p/ g + Z in y axis Datum along x axis plotted to scale If all these points are joined we get a straight sloping line known as 'hydraulic gradient line.
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HYDRAULIC GRADIENTLINE and TOTAL ENERGY LINE
Important points to Remember: For EGL measure He = p/ g + V2/2g + Z For HGL measure Piezometric Head H = p/ g + Z EGL falls in the direction of flow HGL may fall or rise along the direction of flow HGL is always below EGL Vertical Intercept = EGL HGL = V2/2g For uniform cross section, EGL and EGL have same shape. There is no relation between slope of pipe axis and slope of EGL.
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DARCY WEIS BACH EQUATION Pressure Drop in terms of average velocity in circular pipe is given as h = (p1 p2) / g = 32 Uavg L / (gD2) This is Hagen Poiseulle equation Pressure Drop in terms of Reynolds Number and average velocity in circular pipe is given as h = 4 f (L /D) (Uavg2/2g) where f = 16/Re This is Darcy Weisbach relation
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FRICTION FACTOR AND MOODY DIAGRAM
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FRICTION FACTOR AND MOODY DIAGRAM Moody Diagram gives the values of friction factor f as a function of Re and /D for all types of flow (laminar, turbulent, transient). Pressure drop in m of liquid h = 4 f L V2/ (2gD) This loss is called Major Loss in Pipe Friction. For re < 2000. Flow is Laminar. In laminar flow, f is independent of /D and its value is given by f = 16/Re
For Re > 2000, there are two regions: Transient and Turbulent
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FRICTION FACTOR AND MOODY DIAGRAM For Re > 2000, there are two regions: Transient and Turbulent In transient region, f depends upon the Reynold Number Re and Roughness Factor /D of the pipe surface. In turbulent region, f is independent of the Reynold Number Re and depends solely on Roughness Factor /D of the pipe surface.
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FRICTION FACTOR AND MOODY DIAGRAM

An engineering college having 1200 students is to be supplied with water from a reservoir 12 km away. Water is to be supplied at the rate of 50 liters per head per day and half of the daily supply is pumped in 8 hrs. If the head loss is due to friction in 55 m, find the diameter of the pipe. Take f = 0.004. Soln: Number of students N = 1200 Length of pipe L = 12000 m; Daily supply = 1200 x 50 = 60000 liters = 60 m3 Maximum discharge Q, for which the pipe is to be designed, is given by Discharge Q = 60 / (2 x 8 x 3600) = 1.0417x10-3 m3/s Given hf = 55 m; f = 0.004 We know Q = A V; V = 1.326 x 10 -3 / D2; hf = 4 f L V2 / (2gD); Substituting and solving ; D5 = 3.1298 x 10-7; D = 0.05 m
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COMMERCIAL PIPES MINOR LOSSES Minor Energy losses are due to Sudden Enlargement: hen = (V1 V2)2/2g Sudden Contraction: hcon = 0.5 V22 /2g Obstruction in Pipe: hobs = A/ [(Cc (A-a)]2 V2/2g Entry : hin = 0.5 V2/2g Exit : hout = V2/2g Pipe Fittings: hpf = k V2 /2g Bend in pipe: hbend = k V2 /2g
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FLOW THROUGH PIPES IN SERIES When three pipes are connected in series, Total Discharge Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 Total pipe loss hL = hL1+ hL2+ hL3
4 f (L /D) (Uavg2/2g) = 4 f (L /D) (Uavg2/2g)1 + 4 f (L /D) (Uavg2/2g)2 + 4 f (L /D) (Uavg2/2g)3

where f = 16/Re
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FLOW THROUGH PIPES IN SERIES Equivalent Pipe: Equivalent Pipe is a pipe of uniform diameter having loss of head and discharge equal to the loss of head and discharge of the compound pipe. [h f] compound pipe = [h f] equivalent pipe [Q] compound pipe = [Q] equivalent pipe Length of Equivalent Pipe = Le = L1+ L2+ L3 + . For 3 pipes in series, Le = L1+ L2+ L3 Dupits Equation gives equivalent pipe diameter D L/D5 = L1/D15 + L2/D25 + L3/D35
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FLOW THROUGH PIPES IN SERIES
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Two reservoirs containing water are connected by a straight pipe 1600 m long. For the first half of its length, the pipe is 15 cm diameter. It is then suddenly reduced to 7.5 cm diameter. The difference in surface level in the two reservoirs is 30 m. Determine the flow in l/s. Take f for both pipes as 0.04.
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FLOW THROUGH PIPES IN PARALLEL
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FLOW THROUGH PIPES IN PARALLEL When three pipes are connected in parallel, Total Discharge Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 Total pipe loss hL = hL1 = hL2 = hL3 4 f (L /D) (Uavg2/2g) = 4 f (L /D) (Uavg2/2g)1 = 4 f (L /D) (Uavg2/2g)2 = 4 f (L /D) (Uavg2/2g)3 where f = 16/Re
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FLOW THROUGH PIPES IN PARALLEL A 200 mm diameter pipeline, 5000 m long delivers water between reservoirs,the minimum difference in water level between which is 40 m. (a) Taking only friction, entry and exit head losses into account determine steady discharge between the reservoirs.
(b) If the discharge is to be increased to 50 l/s without increase in gross head, determine the length of 200 mm diameter pipeline to be fitted in parallel. Consider only friction losses. ( Take f = 0.016)
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55
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(1)
(2)
(3)
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V2 = v3 A2 V2 = A3 V3 Q2 = Q2 Q1 = 2 Q2 = 2 Q3 Hence Q2 = Q3 = 0.025 m3/s V1 = 1.592 m/s V2 = 0.796 m/s D= H = f/(2gD) (l1v22 + l2V22) 40 = 0.016/(2x9.81xD) (l1v22 + l2V22) L1 = 3495 m; l2 = 1505 m
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END OF UNIT TWO
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FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 3 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Dimensional Analysis: It is a mathematical technique that suggests which variables affecting physical phenomenon are to be grouped together to obtain dimensionless quantities. It provides a functional relationship between the dimensionless quantities.
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DIMENSIONS AND UNITS DIMENSION: MEASURABLE CHARACTERISTIC EXAMPLE: LENGTH, MASS, TIME NOTATIONS: L, M, & T UNIT: STANDARD MEASUREMENT OF THE CHARACTERISTIC EXAMPLE: Meter for L, Kg for M, and Sec for T NOTATIONS: m, kg and s
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FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES
S.No 1 2 3
Physical Quantity Mass Length Time
Symbol Dimens ions M L T M L T
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GEOMETRIC QUANTITIES
S.No
1 2 3
Physical Quantity
Area Volume
Symbol Dimens ions

A V L2 L3
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KINEMATIC QUANTITIES
S.No Physical Quantity

1 2 3 Velocity
Symbol Dimens ions

A L T-1 L3 T-1 L2 T-1
Discharge Q Kinematic Viscosity
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DYNAMIC QUANTITIES
S.No Physical Quantity

1 2 3 Force Dynamic Viscosity Power
Symbol Dimens ions

F P ML T-2 ML-1 T-1 ML2 T- 3
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Dimensional Homogeneity An equation is homogeneous if the dimensions of each term on both sides are equal. The powers of fundamental dimensions (M,L,T) on both sides of equation must be identical. Homogeneous equations are independent of the system of units. Example: V = 2gH Substituting dimensions on both sides
LT-1 = [ LT-2 L]1/2 = LT-1 hence homogeneous

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BUCKINGHAMS THEOREM If there are n variables in a problem and these variables contain m primary dimensions, the equation relating the variables will contain (n-m) dimensionless groups. These groups are termed as 1, 2, 3, 4, ., n-m Each term contains (m+1) variables where m is the number of fundamental dimensions and is also called repeating variables. Let m = 3 and X2, X3, and X4 be the repeating variables Then each term is written as follows 1 = X2a1 X3b1 X4c1 X1 ; 2 = X2a2 X3b2 X4c2 X5 ; n-m = X2a(n-m) X3b(n-m) X4c(n-m) Xn ;
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BUCKINGHAMS THEOREM Let m = 3 and X2, X3, and X4 be the repeating variables Then each term is written as follows 1 = X2a1 X3b1 X4c1 X1 ; 2 = X2a2 X3b2 X4c2 X5 ; n-m = X2a(n-m) X3b(n-m) X4c(n-m) Xn ; Each equation is solved by the principle of dimensional homogeneity and values of a1, b1,c1; a2,b2,c2; . ,a(n-m), b(n-m), C(n-m) are obtained. The final equation for the phenomenon is given by 1 = [2 , 3 , 4 ,., n-m ] 2 =[1 , 3 , 4 ,., n-m ] 3 =[1 , 2 , 4 ,., n-m ]
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SELECTION OF REPEATING VARIABLES Number of repeating variables = Number of fundamental dimensions in the problem. Dependent variable should not be selected as repeated variable. Select variables such that one contains geometric property (L,D), another contains flow property (V, A.) and third variable contains fluid property(, ). Repeating variables together should not form dimensionless group. Repeating variables should have the same number of dimensions. No two repeating variables should have the same dimensions.
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DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS B/D: (Breadth /Depth) Efficiency : (Performance Output/Input) Q/ND3 : (Specific Capacity or Flow Coefficient) gH/N2D2 :(Specific Head, constant for similar
impellers)
/ND2: Inverse of Reynolds Number Re: Reynolds Number P/ N3 D5 : (Power Coefficient or Specific Power) ND/ gH, T/ N2 D5 / N2 D3
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MODELS AND SIMILITUDE What is Model Testing? The design, construction, and erection of hydraulic structures and machines involve time, money, energy, and efforts. To minimize the chances of failure, it is desired to perform the tests on a small size models of the structures and machines. The actual size machine is called prototype. The small replica of prototype is called model. In certain cases models may be larger than the prototype (Ex: Model of a watch). Model testing is economical, easy, and can be changed any number of times.
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APPLICATIONS OF DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS
The performance of prototype can be predicted from the performance of the model. However for this a complete similarity between model and prototype should exist. SIMILITUDE: Similitude means complete similarity between model and prototype. There are three types of similarity.
Geometric Similarity Kinematic Similarity and Dynamic Similarity.
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SIMILITUDE Geometric Similarity: Length Scale Ratio Lr = Lp/Lm= bp/bm= dp/dm Area Scale Ratio Ar = Ap/Am= Lp/Lm x bp/bm Volume Scale Ratio Vr = Lp/Lm x bp/bmx dp/dm Kinematic Similarity: Time Scale Ratio Tr = Tm / Tp Velocity Scale Ratio Cr = Cm / Cp = Lr / Tr Acceleration Scale Ratio ar = am / ap = Lr / Tr 2 Discharge Scale ratio Qr = Qm / Qp = Lr3 / Tr Dynamic Similarity: Force Scale Ratio Fr = Fip/ Fim = Fvp/ Fvm = Fgp/ Fgm (Inertia, viscous and gravity forces ratio)
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DISTORTED MODEL Sometimes it may be necessary to make models which are not GEOMETRICALLY Similar to the prototype. Example: River and Harbour model; Depth of water is very large. Surface roughness can not be reduced to geometric scale and at the same time create turbulent flow. Distorted models have different scale factors for horizontal and vertical directions. Normally vertical scale 1/100 and horizontal scale 1/200 to 1/500 adopted.
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PROBLEMS
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PROBLEM 1: The diameter and width of the runner of a turbine are D and B respectively and it rotates at a speed of N. The working head is gH. If density and viscosity of the working fluid be and respectively, show that the power developed will be given by P = N3 D5 [ B/D, ND/gH, Re] PROBLEM 2: A hydraulic prime mover. When tested in a laboratory at 200 rpm under 10 m head develops 50 kW power. Estimate the power potential, size ratio, and the specific speed of a similar machine operating under a head of 30 m and running at the same speed.
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PROBLEM 1 Soln: Variables involved are: D, B, gH, N, P, and Dimensions are: L, L, L2T 2, T 1, ML 2T 3, ML 3, ML 1T 1 Number of variables = 7; Number of fundamental dimensions present = 3 Number of dimensionless parameters = 7 3 = 4 Number of repeat variables considered are D, N, and . 1 = X2a1 X3b1 X4c1 X1 ; 2 = X2a2 X3b2 X4c2 X5 ; n-m = X2a(n-m) X3b(n-m) X4c(n-m) Xn ;
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Number of repeat variables considered are D, N, and . 1 = X2a1 X3b1 X4c1 X1 = Da1 Nb1 c1 B1 ;
2 = X2a2 X3b2 X4c2 X5 = Da2 Nb2 c2 H1 ;

3 = X2a3 X3b3 X4c3 X6 = Da3 Nb3 c3 1 ; 4 = X2a4 X3b4 X4c4 X7 = Da4 Nb4 c4 P1 ; Solving by dimensional approach i.e. equating the powers of l, M, and T on both sides we get, 1 = B/D; 2 = ND/gH 3 = Re = N D / ; 4 = P / N3 D5 ;
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PROBLEM 2 Soln: Specific Speed of Model = Specific Speed of Prototype Equating gH/N2D2, Dp/Dm=1.73 Equating P/N3D5, P = 779.423 kW NsT model = N P / H5/4 = 200 (500.5) / (105/4) = 79.527 NsT proto = N P / H5/4 = 200 (P0.5) / (305/4) = 79.527 Same for both.
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END OF UNIT THREE
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FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 4 ROTO DYNAMIC MACHINES
HOMOLOGUS UNITS Machines which are geometrically similar form a homologous series. The member of such a series, having a common shape are simply enlargements or reductions of each other.
If two machines are kinematically similar, the velocity vector diagrams at inlet and outlet of the rotor of one machine must be similar to those of the other.
Geometrical similarity of the inlet and outlet velocity diagrams is, therefore, a necessary condition for dynamic similarity.
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SPECIFIC SPEED The performance or operating conditions for a turbine handling a particular fluid are usually
expressed by the values of N , P and H , and for a

pump by N , Q and H . It is important to know the range of these operating parameters covered by a machine of a particular shape (homologous series) at high efficiency. Such information enables us to select the type of machine best suited to a particular application, and
thus serves as a starting point in its design.
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SPECIFIC SPEED A parameter independent of the size of the machine D is required which will be the characteristic of all the machines of a homologous series. A parameter involving N , P and H but not D is obtained for turbine as KsT Similarly, a parameter involving N , Q and H but not D is obtained as KsP
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SPECIFIC SPEED (Dimensional)

Specific speed Dimensional formula Unit (SI)
(turbine)
M 1/2 T -5/2 L-1/4
kg 1/2/ s5/2 m1/4
NsT = N P / H5/4 It is the speed of a geometrically similar turbine that would produce unit power under unit head.
(pump)
L 3/4 T-3/2
m 3/4 / s3/2
NsP = N Q / H3/4 It is the speed of a geometrically similar pump that would produce unit flow under unit head.
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SPECIFIC SPEED (Dimensional)

(turbine) M 1/2 T -5/2 L-1/4 kg 1/2/ s5/2 m1/4 NsT = N P / H5/4 Specific Speed Turbine Type 8.5 to 30 Pelton Single jet 30 to 51 Pelton Double jet 51 to 225 Francis 225 to 860 Kaplan/propeller
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THEORY OF TURBO MACHINES A turbomachine consists of a rotating element, fluid and a relative motion between the two. Fluid Machine is a machine which uses fluid for transfer of energy from fluid to rotor or rotor to fluid.
Based on the direction of transfer of energy, fluid machines or turbomachines can be classified as
(i)Turbines ( Power Generating Machine) (ii)Pumps or Compressors (Power Absorbing Machine)
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EULERS EQUATION Eulers head is the energy transferred per unit weight of fluid from fluid to rotor or from rotor to fluid. Formula: HE = [u1Vw1 u2Vw2] / g meters
Assumptions: Steady uniform flow with continuity in pressure. For Turbines, HE is positive For Pumps/compressors, HE is negative
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EULERS EQUATION
Specific work g HE = [u1Vw1 u2Vw2] = (1/2) {[ V12 V22 ] + [ U12 U22 ] + [ Vr22 Vr12 ] } [ V12 V22 ]/2g is energy transfer due to change of absolute energy of fluid between inlet and outlet. It is called impulse effect. [ U12 U22 ]/2g is change of energy due to centrifugal effect and changes static pressure. [ Vr22 Vr12 ]/2g is energy transfer due to change of relative kinetic energy of fluid between inlet and outlet. It is called impulse effect. This is called Reaction effect and changes static pressure.
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HYDRAULIC EFFICIENCY It is the ratio of Eulers head to the head available at the inlet of turbine. hyd = HE / H = [u1Vw1 u2Vw2] / gH (Note: Vw2 is negative for Pelton Wheel) Degree of Reaction R = Energy Transfer by virtue of change of static pressure / Total Energy Transfer = = (1/2) {[(U12 U22 ) + ( Vr22 Vr12 )} / [u1Vw1 u2Vw2]
90
VELOCITY COMPONENTS AT ENTRY OF ROTOR
V1 < 90o Vr1
V1 Vr1 = 90o
V1 u1
Vr1
> 90o
Note: At inlet diagram is drawn with U + Vr = V

91
VELOCITY COMPONENTS AT EXIT OF ROTOR

U2 U2
V w2
U2
V2 Vr2 Vr2 V2 Vr2 V2
At outlet, diagram is drawn with Vr + U = V When direction of U and Vr2 are in the same direction Forward blade; otherwise Backward blade
92
VELOCITY COMPONENTS OF SINGLE STAGE RADIAL FLOW MACHINE
U2
V2 Vr2 Vf2 < 90o V1 Vr1
At inlet, diagram is drawn with U + Vr = V
At outlet, diagram is drawn with Vr + U = V

When direction of U and Vr2 are in the same direction Forward blade; otherwise Backward blade
93
VELOCITY TRIANGLE FOR AXIAL FLOW MACHINE

U2 V2 = Vf2
Vr2
Vw2 = 0; U1 = U2 V1 U1 Vr1 Vf1 Vf1 = Vf2= V2
< 90o
94
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS Centrifugal Pump is a roto dynamic pump in which mechanical energy is converted in to hydraulic pressure energy by means of centrifugal force acting on the fluid by the impeller. Working Principle: When certain mass of fluid is
rotated by an external source, it is thrown away

from the central axis of rotation and a centrifugal head is developed. This centrifugal head enables the liquid to raise to a higher level.
95
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS Classifications: According to (a)Working head (b)Direction of flow (c)Number of entrances (d)Number of stages (e)Specific Speed (f)Type of casing
96
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS Classifications: (a) Working head Low head upto 15 m; Medium Head 15 40 m; High Head above 40 m (b) Direction of flow Radial Flow; Axial Flow; Mixed Flow (c) Number of entrances Single Entry; Double Entry (d) Number of stages Single Stage; Multi Stage (e) Specific Speed 10 to 20 rpm Radial Flow; 80 to 120 rpm Mixed Flow; a60 to 950 rpm Axial Flow (f) Type of casing Volute Casing; Vortex Casing; Diffuser Casing (with guide blades)
97
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS Suction Head: hs is the vertical height of the centre of the pump above the water surface in the tank or sump from which water is to be lifted. Delivery Head: hd is the vertical height between the centre line of the pump and the water surface in the tank to which water is delivered. Manometric Head: Hm is the sum suctionhead, delivery head, velocity head at delivery end, and friction heads at suction and delivery lines. FORMULA: Hm = hs + hd + hfs + hfd + Vd2/2g hf = 4 f L V2 / 2gD
98
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS LOSS DIAGRAM

Mechanical Loss
Impeller & casing Loss Leak -age Loss
Hth H
Useful power gQH
99
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS Characteristic Curves: are the curves by which the exact behaviour and performance of the pump under different flow rate, head and speed. Minimum Starting Speed: is the speed at which the pump starts delivering the fluid.
FORMULA: Nmin = 120 mano Vw2 D2 / [(D22 D12)]
100
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS EFFICIENCIES Manometric Efficiency mano = g Hm / u2Vw2 Mechanical Efficiency mech = Q u2Vw2 / SP, Where SP is Power available at shaft, Q u2Vw2 is the power at impeller in kW Overall Efficiency o = Q gHm / SP = mano x mech
101
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS CAVITATION: is the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles of flowing fluid in a region where the pressure of liquid is below its vapour pressure and the sudden collapsing of these bubbles in a region of high pressure. Cavitation occurs if the suction pressure falls below the vapour pressure of the liquid. Cavition results in (a) Cavity formation (b) Noise and Vibration (c) Drop in efficiency and head developed.
102
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS Precautions aganist Cavitation: (a) (b) (c) (d) Use Cavitation resistant materials like bronze, stainless steel Minimise friction losses, avoiding bends. Reduce turbulence by proving adequate vanes to guide the liquid. Do not allow the pressure to fall below the vapour pressure at any part of the system.
103
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS Priming:is the operation in which suction pipe, casing of the pump and a portion of the delivery pipe up to delivery valve are completely filled with liquid before starting the pump. Thus air from these parts of the pump is removed.
If priming is not done: 1. Air pockets inside the pump may cause vortices and discontinuity of flow. 2. Dry running of pump resulting in rubbing and seizing of wearing rings. 3. Pump impeller may be seriously damaged.
104
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS VELOCITY TRIANGLES FOR CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
Vw2 u2 v2 vR2 u2 Vw2
u2
v2
vR2
vf2
v2
vf2
vR2
vR1
vR1 v1 u1
v1 Forward Curved l Blade
vR1 u1
v1
u1 Radial Blade
Backward Curved Blade

105
TURBINES Hydro Turbines are hydraulic machines which convert hydraulic energy in to mechanical energy. Classifications: According to (a)Head and Quantity available (b)Name of the Originator (c)Action of water on the moving blades (d)Direction of flow of water in the runner (e)Disposition of shaft of the turbine (f)Specific Speed
106
TURBINES
Classifications: According to Head and Quantity available
(i)
Impulse Turbine requires high head and small flow rate.
(ii) Reaction Turbine requires low head and large flow rate.
(iii) Medium head and Medium flow Turbine requires medium head and medium flow rate.
107
TURBINES Classifications: According to Name of the Originator (i) Pelton Turbine named after Lester Allen Pelton of California (ii) Francis Turbine named after James Bichens Francis (iii) Kaplan Turbine named after Dr.Victor Kaplan
108
TURBINES Classifications: According to Action of water on the moving blade (i) (ii) Impulse Turbine Kinetic energy is converted in to mechanical energy Reaction Turbine Partially kinetic energy and partially pressure energy is converted in to mechanical energy. is
(iii) Kaplan Turbine Pressure energy converted in to mechanical energy.
109
TURBINES Classifications: According to Direction of flow of water in the runner (i) (ii) Tangential Flow Turbine Water strikes tangential to the path of rotation (Pelton) Radial Flow Turbine Water flows radially inwards or outwards.
(iii) Axial Flow Turbine Water flows parallel to the axis of the runner shaft (Kaplan)
(iv) Mixed Flow Turbine Water flows both radially and axially (Francis)
110
TURBINES Classifications: According to Disposition of shaft of the turbine (i) Horizontal Shaft Turbine Kaplan) Vertical Kaplan) Shaft Turbine (Pelton, Horizontal
(i)
(Francis,
Vertical
111
TURBINES Classifications: According to Specific Speed Turbine Type Pelton Single jet Pelton Double jet
Specific Speed 8.5 to 30 30 to 51
51 to 225
225 to 860
Francis
Kaplan/propeller
112
Classifications: According to Specific Speed for Centrifugal Pumps
S.No. 1 2 3
Type of Impeller for Centrifugal Pumps Slow Speed Radial Flow Medium Speed Radial Flow High Speed Radial Flow
Specific Speed 10 30 30 50 50 80
4 5
Mixed Flow Axial Flow
80 160 160 - 500
113
TURBINES
For Turbines Specific Speed NST = N P / (H5/4)
For Pumps, Specific Speed NSP = N Q / (H3/4)
114
TURBINES - CLASSIFICATION Pelton Turbine is a tangential flow impulse turbine. Energy available at inlet is only kinetic energy. Pressure at inlet and outlet is only atmosphere. Impact of jet on wheel exerts hydro dynamic force and thus produces mechanical energy. Francis Turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine having radial discharge at outlet. Both kinetic energy and pressure energy are converted to mechanical energy. Kaplan Turbine is an axial flow reaction turbine. At the inlet water has both kinetic and pressure energy. Part of pressure energy is converted to kinetic energy during the flow through runner.
115
PERFORMANCE CURVES FOR PUMPS
P H For various speeds N, draw various curves
Q
116
Classifications: According to Specific Speed for Centrifugal Pumps
S.No. 1 2 3
Type of Impeller for Centrifugal Pumps Slow Speed Radial Flow Medium Speed Radial Flow High Speed Radial Flow
Specific Speed 10 30 30 50 50 80
4 5
Mixed Flow Axial Flow
80 160 160 - 500
117
PERFORMANCE CURVES FOR TURBINES
Qu For various speeds N, draw various curves
Nu
118
END OF UNIT FOUR
119
FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 5 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT MACHINES
RECIPROCATING PUMPS Reciprocating Pump is a positive displacement pump. Liquid is first sucked into a cylinder and then displaced by the thrust of piston moving to and fro in the cylinder. Classifications: (i) According to action of pump: (a) Single acting and (b) Double acting (ii) According to Number of cylinders (a) Single Cylinder and (b) Double Cylinder According to Provision of air vessels (a) With air vessel and (b) without air vessel
120
RECIPROCATING PUMPS Formulae for Discharge Q in m3/s Q = n A L N / 60 Where n = 1 for single acting and n = 2 for double acting, A is area of cross section of piston (cylinder) in m2, L is stroke length in m, N is crank speed in rpm Stroke length L = 2 r, where r = crank radius in m. Area of piston A = (/4)D2, where D is diameter of cylinder (piston) in m.
121
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
Slip is defined by the relation S = (Qth Qact) where Qth is theoretical discharge and Qact is actual discharge in m3/s Percentage Slip = S % = 100 (Qth Qact) / Qth Coefficient of discharge Cd = Qact / Qth Volumetric Efficiency v = 100 Cd
122
RECIPROCATING PUMPS Formulae for Workdone W in kW W = ngALN (hs + hd) / (60000) , where n = 1 for single acting and n = 2 for double acting, A is area of cross section of piston (cylinder) in m2, L is stroke length in m, N is crank speed in rpm, hs is suction haed in m, hd is delivery head in m. g = 9.81 m/s2
123
INDICATOR DIAGRAMS Indicator diagram is a graph showing the pressure head inside the cylinder along the y axis Vs Location of the piston in the cylinder along the x axis. We know maximum length along the x axis = Maximum distance travelled by the piston = Stroke Length = L (a) Ideal Indicator diagram (b) Indicator diagram due to acceleration in suction and delivery lines Area of indicator diagrams in both cases are same.
124
VELOCITY OF PISTON INSIDE THE CYLINDER
Velocity V = r Sin t
Acceleration a = 2 r Cos t , where is angular velocity of crank in radians per second; r is crank radius in m; t is time in seconds.
125
INDICATOR DIAGRAMS (IDEAL)
D, 180o
C , = 0o
atm
Delivery P h atm
atm
hd
atm
F hs Suction
atm
A, = 0o
atm
B, 180o L
atm atm
Stroke Length
126
INDICATOR DIAGRAMS (Acceleration in suction and delivery lines) AA = BB = has; CC = DD = had

D C , = 0o P h atm
atm
Delivery
atm
hd
atm
E Suction A
atm
F B
atm
hs
atm
B, 180o L
atm atm
A
atm
127
AIR VESSELS Ai Vessel: is a closed chamber, opening at the bottom side and connected to suction pipe and delivery pipe. Compressed air is filled up inside the chamber. Air vessels are connected in the pipes at points close to the cylinder. ADVANTAGES:
Air Vessels provide continuous flow of fluid at uniform rate.

Air Vessels increase the delivery head. Air Vessels help to run the pump at high speeds without separation.
128
AIR VESSELS PERFORMANCE During the first half of delivery stroke, piston accelerates to force the liquid into the delivery pipe with higher velocity. The excess liquid flows into the airvessel compressing the air inside. During the second half of the delivery stroke piston decelerates to force the liquid into the delivery pipe with a lower velocity. Now the liquid stored in the airvessel flows into the delivery pipe. Thus uniform velocity is obtained in the delivery pipe. Similarly, on the suction side, liquid flows into the air vessel during first half of suction stroke and flows from the airvessel into the cylinder in the second half of the suction stroke.
129
WORK SAVED BY AIR VESSELS Percentage of work saved by fitting an air vessel in
a single acting reciprocating pump = 84.8%

Percentage of work saved by fitting an air vessel in a double acting reciprocating pump = 39.21%
130
Comparison of Centrifugal pump and reciprocating pump Centrifugal Pump Suitable for Large Discharge and Low Head No air Vessel required Priming is required Continuous flow Reciprocating Pump Suitable for Small Discharge and High Head Air Vessel required No priming required Pulsating flow
131
Thank You and Best Wishes

132
END OF ANSWERS

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FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

FLUID PROPERTIES Density: Mass per unit Volume measured in kg/m3

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME System:

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

Types of Energy: Pressure head or Pressure Energy

Velocity Head or Kinetic Energy and

Potential Head or Potential Energy

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

Unit J/kg Unit m

Unit m Unit J/kg

Total Head or Total Energy = p/ g + V2/2g + Z

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

Applications: To find RESULTANT FORCE

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

IMPULSE MOMENTUM EQUATION Momentum Equation: F = d (mV) / dt

Impulse Moment Equation: F dt = d (mV)

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

T = Q ( Vu2 r2 V u1 r1) = 1000 x (3.4/60) (6.4 x 0.6 0)

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

Forward Curved l Blade

Backward Curved Blade

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 1- INTRODUCTION

END OF UNIT ONE

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 2 FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

Combining the above two equations

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 2 FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 2 FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 2 FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

Laminar and Boundary Layer

Laminar Sub Layer

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 2 FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

For a simple velocity profile, u / U = y / ,

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 2 FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

For a simple velocity profile, u / U = y / ,

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 2 FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 2 FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 2 FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 2 FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 2 FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

Hydraulic Gradient and Total Energy Lines

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 2 FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

Hydraulic Gradient and Total Energy Lines

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 2 FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

Hydraulic Gradient and Total Energy Lines

FLUID MECHANICS UNIT 2 FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS