2.

THE RADAR SYSTEM

OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLES

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Simple block diagram of a radar system

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1-TRANSMITTER FUNCTION
The fuction of transmitter is to generate pulses of
electromagnetic energy having the correct
repetion frequency,
length,
shape,
power and
radio frequency.

WAVEGUIDE
The pulses normaly travel to the aerial by way of
hollow cooper tubing which has precisely machined
rectangular or circular cross-section and is known
as waveguide 3
Range measurement:Timing must commence at the
instant of transmision. This is achieved by using the
same pulse to inititate transmission as is used to start
the corresponding trace on the CRT display.
This pulse is known as “synchronizing pulse”or
“trigger”.

The line connecting the transmitter to the receiver

also carries the trigger Pulse to inititate sea clutter
suppression.

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 Modulator and
Trigger generator
Trigger
pulse forming magnetron
network Modulator
pulse RF pulse
to T/R cell
Pulse length
selection
PRF
selection
Range scale
Transmitter
and pulse lenght
selector

The transmitter – a block diagram

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1- The trigger generator: controls the repetion
frequency of the transmitted pulses

2- The modulator and associated pulse–forming

Network : defines the length, shape and power
of the transmitted pulse.

3- Magnetron: determines the radio frequency of the

pulse which travels up the waveguide to the areial

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 The pulse repetion frequency:
PRF is the number of the radar pulses transmitted
in one second. Trigger generator controls the PRF

Typical values. 3400, 1700 and 850 pulses per second

Long ranges..........Low PRF

Selection is automatic
Short ranges..........High PRF

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 The pulse length
Pulse length is the duration of the transmitted
radar pulse and is usually measured in microseconds.

--Receiver s can amplify long pulses more effectively

than short pulses.
--- shorter the pulse length better the detail

Short pulse ---short ranges

Long pulse ---long distance
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PRF nad Pulse Length, some representative values

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features Long pulse
Short pulse
Long range target Poor. Use when short Good.Use when long
detection range scales are selected range scales are selected
and for poor response
targets at short range
Minimum range Good.use when short Poor. Use when long
range scales are selected range scales are selected
and min range is not a
mjor consideration
Range discrimination good Poor

Effect on echo paint Produces a well defined

picture when short range
scales are selected

Effect on sea clutter Reduces the probabality Increase the probabilty

of the masking of targets of the masking targets
due to saturation due to saturation.

Effect in Reduces the probability Increase the probabilty

of the masking of targets of the masking targets
precipitation due to saturation due to saturation.also
long pulse will increase
the probability of
detecting targets which
lie beyond rain 10
The power of the transmitted pulse

The range at which a target can be dedected is

dependent on the power of the transmitted
pulse.

The theoretical max. Radar dedection range is

limited by the tranmitter power.

For small craft radar systems a

transmitterpower of 3 kw and on merchant
vessels 10 to 60 kW is used
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The radio frequency of the transmitted pulse

Two groups of radio frequencies are allocated for

use by civil marine radar systems.

One group lies in the X-band and include

frequencies which lie between 9300 and 9500
MHz. Wavelength is app. 3 cm.

Second group lies in the S-band and include

frequencies which lie between 2900 and 3100
MHz. Wavelength is app. 10 cm

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X-band and S-band compared

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14
2- The Aerial function
Aerial, scanner and antenna are all same names
commanly used to describe the device which radiates
the radio energy into space and intercepts the returning
echoes.

Its construction defines the power distribution of the

radar beam in both the horizontal and the vertical
planes.

Horizontal limits must be narrow also the vertical beam

must be Wide.

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To achieve 360°of azimuth coverage the scanner is
rotated continously and automatically in a
clockwise direction.

A signal representing this rotation is relayed to the

PPI display.

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17
3- the receiver function:
the fuction of the receiver is to amplify the very weak
echoes intercepted by the aerial so as to generate
pulses whose form and power will produce a visible
response on the screen of a cathode ray tube.( or
provide a suitable input for digital storage)

A single aerial is used for transmission and

reception. Also the waveguide is common to both
trnasmitter and receiver

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The powerful pulses generated by the transmitter
might be able to pass directly into the
receiver???????

The receiver is protected from this by T/R cell.

T/R cell blocks the input to the receiver during

transmission.

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Inputs to the receiver:
1-received signals from the aerial and
2-the trigger pulse to initiate sea clutter
suppression
output from receiver: amplified signals to the
display

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4-The display function

The prime function of the display is to indicate the

presence of dedectable objects by generating, on the
screen of the cathode ray tube, a visible response whose
angular and radial position with respect to the heading
line and the origin of the trace are representative of the
bearing and range, respectively, at which the
corresponding target lies.

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22
23
Display generates the radar picture

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 Aerial receiver
Heading marker Echo signal

Aerial rotation Trigger/

Aerial transmitter

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1- the trigger: Ensures that each trace commences
at the instant of a transmision.

2- The amplified echoes:Each echo on any given

trace produces a brightening of the spot on the
CRT at an elpased time after the transmission
which initiate the trace. The lenght of the elapsed
time is proportional to the range of the target.

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3- The rotation signal: This signal causes the trace to
rotate at the same angular rate as the aerial.

4- The heading marker signal: This generates the

brightened radial indicator corresponding with the
forward direction of the ship’s fore and aft line , thus
providing a refernce from which bearings can be
measured

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Time relation between signals are very important.

1 and 2 recur several thousand times per second

3 and 4 have a period of afew seconds

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The radar picture is being presented on the screen of a
cathode ray tube .

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30
*Electrons are emitted at the narrow end of the tube

*formed into a very narrow beam which strikes the inside

of the screen at the other end and

*there produces a spot of light whose brightness, size and

position may be controlled. The generation and control of
the spot is best described by considering the CRT to
comprise three major elements:

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1- The electron gun which emits the electron stream.

2- The coated screen which reacts to produce light when

struck by the electrons.

3 -The deflection system which controls the location at

which the beam strikes the screen.

Each of these elements will now be considered in turn.

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The electron gun
An electron is the fundamental particle which carries
unit negative electrical charge. The electron gun is an
arrangement of cylindrical metal components which are
known as electrodes.

The electrodes are located along the axis of the tube and
their function is to liberate, accelerate and concentrate the
electrons into a narrow beam which is fired toward the
screen.
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The electrode which emits the electrons is called the
cathode and it is from this that the tube takes its name.

The various electrodes which attract the electrons towards

the screen are called anodes. These are maintained at very
high positive potentials with respect to the cathode in
order to accelerate the electrons to speeds of tens of
thousands of kilometres per second.

The strength of the electron stream is controlled by an

electrode known as the control grid, normally referred to
merely as the grid.
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The cathode is a metal cylinder closed at the end nearer
the screen and is coated on the outside with an oxide
having an atomic structure such that electrons are emitted
from the surface at a relatively low level of heat. The
emission is promoted by heating the cathode indirectly as a
result of passing electric current through a wire filament,
known as the heater, which is located inside the cathode
cylinder.

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The electrons emitted by the cathode form a cloud in its
vicinity known as the space charge. As the cloud builds
up, the loss of negative charge to the cloud renders the
cathode positive with respect to the cloud; hence some
electrons tend to be recaptured. However, at any given
temperature a state of dynamic equilibrium will be
reached in which as many electrons are leaving the cloud
as are joining it and thus a space charge of constant
population will surround the end of the cathode.

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Electrons are drawn from this cloud and accelerated
toward the screen to form the electron beam.

Returning echoes, after being amplified by the receiver,

are applied to the cathode as a pulse of negative polarity
which will produce an increase in the strength of the beam
and hence a brightening of the spot.

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The grid is cylindrical in shape with one end closed except for
a small hole which constrains electrons travelling along or
close to the tube axis to pass through and emerge in the form
of a convergent beam. It is located between the cathode and
the first anode but closer to the cathode . The grid potential
can be adjusted by the observer, using the brilliance control,
and will be a few tens of volts negative with respect to the
cathode.

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