Immunology

Immunology the science that encompasses the body's defense mechanically. Immune system a defense system developed in vertebrates. Protection against pathogenic microbes and cancer.

The Nature of Disease

Pathogenic Organisms Genetic Disorders Toxic Chemicals Other Environmental Factors Physical Damage to Organs Nutritional Disorders

Types of Pathogenic Organisms

Viruses Bacteria Protozoan Fungi Animal Parasites

Mechanisms of Disease by Pathogens

Utilization of host nutritional resources Physical damage to host tissues Production of toxic substances Chromosomal and gene damage Body cells behave abnormally

 Immune response has 2 interrelated activities: Recognition- between 2 foreign pathogens -Discriminate between self and foreign Response- Effector response - Memory response

 Immunity State of protection from infectious diseases. Immune response reaction of the body against foreign antigen.

Types of immunity
Innate immunity (Native immunity)
Resistance by virtue of genetic and constitutional make up

Specific Non-specific species Racial Individual

 Species immunity-eg: humans unsusceptible to plant pathogens and many animal pathogens Racial immunity-eg: resistance of algerian sheep to anthrax. People of negroid origin susceptible to TB than caucasians Individual immunity- eg:factors like age, hormonal influence, nutrition etc

Defensive barriers
Anatomic barriers Physiologic barrier Endocytic and phagocytic barrier Inflamatory barrier

Anatomic barriers
Skin acts as barrier to microbes and viruses - sweat has a low pH- sebaceous glands Mucus traps foreign particles Tears Saliva

Body Coverings: The Skin

epidermis sebaceous glands sweat gland

Body Coverings: Mucous Membranes

mucus cilia

columnar epithelium

Physiologic barriers
Temperature pH Oxygen tension Gastric acidity Soluble proteins like: - Lysozyme- hydrolytic enzyme in mucous secretions, can cleave PG layer - Interferon- proteins produced by virus infected cells, can bind to nearby cells and induce generalised antiviral state - Complements- group of serum proteins that circulate in a inactive proenzyme state which can be activated to destroy pathogens

Endocytic and Phagocytic barriers

Endocytosis- Process of internalization of macromolecules. By formation of endocytic vesicles by the PM. Endocytosis occurs through Pinocytosis or receptor mediated endocytosis. Pinocytosis- internalization through non-specific membrane invaginations Receptor mediated endocytosis- selective internalization by binding to membrane receptors

 After internalization- endoytic vesicles fuse and are delivered to endosomes In endosomes macromolecules are lysed by lysosymes from golgi complex in to smaller products like peptides, sugars, nucleotides etc This is called the endosomal processing pathway.

 Phagocytosis- ingestion of particulate matter including whole pathogenic microorganism. PM expands around the particulate material to form a large vesicle called phagosome 1020 times larger than the endocytic vesicle. Only specialised cells can phagocytose eg Monocytes, Neutrophils, Macrophages Phagosome fuse with lysozome and ingested material is digested

Nonspecific Phagocytosis

Neutrophils Monocytes Eosinophils

Mechanism of Phagocytosis

Macrophage

Lymphatic System

Inflamatory barrier
Tissue damage caused by a wound or invasion of a pathogenic microorganism induces a Inflammatory Response. 3 main events occur: Vasodilation Increased capillary permeability Influx of phagocytic cells

 Vasodilation: Increase in the diameter of blood vessels due to constriction of blood vessels that carry blood away from the affected area- results in engorgement of the capillary network Cause Erythema- tissue redness

 Increase in capillary permeability: Influx of fluids from engorged capillaries into tissues. This fluid is called Exudate causes Edema tissue swelling

 Influx of phagocytic cells: Capillary permeability facilitate migration of WBCs from capillary to tissues. Emigration of phagocytes involve a complex series of events including cellular adherence (Margination) to endothelial wall -emigration between capillary endothelial cells into tissues DIAPEDESIS or EXTRAVASATION - Migration through tissue to site of responseChemotaxis.

 Phagocytic cells accumulate and phagocytose bacteria , release lytic enzymes that can damage nearby healthy cells . Accumulation of dead cells, digested material and fluid form a substance called PUS

Inflammatory Response

Histamine & prostaglandins released

Capillaries dilate Clotting begins

Chemotactic factors attract phagocytic cells

Phagocytes consume pathogens & cell debris

Acquired Immunity
Active Immunity - Naturally-Acquired Active Immunity - Artificially-Acquired Active Immunity Passive Immunity - Naturally-Acquired Passive Immunity - Artificially-Acquired Passive Immunity

Active Immunity
Resistance developed as a result of antigenic stimulus Active functioning of Immune system Synthesis of antibodies Production of immunologically active cells Long lasting associated with immunological memory.

 Natural active immunity: clinical or inapparent infection with a parasite. Eg attack of measles, chicken pox etc. Some viral disease immunity is short lived eg common cold, influenza. Immunity following bacterial infection is generally permanent.

 Artificial active immunity: resistance induced by vaccines Vaccines are preparations of live or killed microorganisms or their products used for immunisation Eg: Bacterial vaccines: Live- BCG killed- TAB Viral vaccines: Live- OPV Killed- salk for polio Bacterial products- toxoids for diphtheria and tetanus

 Live vaccines- initiate infection without causing injury or disease. Immunity similar to natural infection. Lasts for several years, boosters recommended Administration can be oral or parenteral

 Killed vaccines less immunogenic Protection for short period Administration repeatedly, atleast 2 doses for immunity, primary dose and booster dose.

Passive immunity
Resistance transmitted to a recipient in a ready made form. Recepients immune system plays no active role No antigenic stimulus, preformed antibodies are administered Protection immediate Immunity for days or weeks

 Natural passive immunity: Resistance transferred from mother to baby, through placenta in humans, and in animals through colostrum. Human colostrum is rich in IgA. Human foetus acquires ability to syntiesize antibodies from 20th week of life. Maternal antibodies give passive protection

 Artificial passive immunity: Transferred by administration of antibodies. Agents used- hyperimmune sera of animal or human origin. Eg antitetanus serum ATS Tetanus toxoids are injected to horse, blood is collected and serum separated , antibodies are concentrated and purified. Administration- subcutaneous for prophylaxis, IV for treatment. Passive immunisation- provides immedaite and temporary protection in a non immune host.

Types of Acquired Immunity

Active Immunity
The production of antibodies against a specific disease by the immune system. Naturally acquired through disease Artificially acquired through vaccination
Vaccines include inactivated toxins, killed microbes, parts of microbes, and viable but weakened microbes.

Active immunity is usually permanent

 A vaccinated person has a secondary response based on memory cells when encountering the specific pathogen.
Routine immunization against infectious diseases such as measles and whooping cough, and has led to the eradication of smallpox, a viral disease. Unfortunately, not all infectious agents are easily managed by vaccination.
HIV vaccine in the works

Passive Immunity
Passive Immunity- Protection against disease through antibodies produced by another human being or animal. Effective, but temporary Ex. Maternal antibodies Colostrum.

 Passive immunity can be transferred artificially by injecting antibodies from an animal that is already immune to a disease into another animal.
Rabies treatment: injection with antibodies against rabies virus that are both passive immunizations (the immediate fight) and active immunizations (longer term defense).