INTRODUCTION TO FABRICATION TECHNOLOGY

MAILAM INDIA LIMITED, PONDICHERRY

EVOLUTION OF WELDING

HOW ? WHEN ?
WHERE ?

TUBAL CAIN FORGE WELD BC

BERNADO CARBON ARC 1885 KJELLBERG METAL ARC 1910

DEVELOPMENT OF WELDING

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Forge Welding Electric Arc CorbonArc Welding CorbonArc Welding Electric Resistance Metal Arc Welding Thermit Welding Oxyacetylene Welding Metal Arc Welding

BC 1801 1881 1885 1886 1888 1897 1906 1910

Tubal Cain -Middle East Sir Humphrey Davy,UK De Meritens -French N.V.Bernardo -Russian Elihu Thompson -USA Slavianoff -Russian H. Goldschmidt -Germany Eugene Davis -USA A.Bournonvile -French Oscar Kjellberg -Swede

WELDING
A METAL JOINING METHOD

IN WHICH THE JOINING

EDGES ARE HEATED AND FUSED TOGETHER TO FORM A PERMANENT BOND ( HOMOGENEOUS) IS KNOWN AS WELDING

ADVANTAGES
HIGH STRENGTH
FREEDOM IN DESIGN

WITHSTANDS HIGH PRESSURE

MORE ECONOMY OF MATERIAL

LESS WEIGHT

DISADVANTAGES
WELDING RESULTS IN DISTORTION.
EDGE PREPARATION IS REQUIRED.

SKILLED WORKMAN IS REQUIRED.

CHANGES IN METALURGICAL PART. HEAT TREATMENT IS REQUIRED IN
SOME CASES

APPLICATIONS OF WELDING

FABRICATION OF PRESSURE VESSELS CONSTRUCTION OF PROJECTS MAINTENANCE OF PROCESS PLANTS FABRICATION OF INDUSTRIAL BOILERS CONSTRUCTION OF PIPE LINES ERECTION OF POWER PROJECTS NUCLEAR AND DEFENCE PROJECTS

AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY

BUILDINGS

APPLICATIONS

PRESSURE VESSELS

PIPE LINE WORKS SHIPS & AIRCRAFT

BRIDGES & TANKS

Fusion welding without pressure (Fig 1)

A method of welding in which similar and dissimilar metals are joined together by melting and fusing their joining edges with or without the addition of filler metal but without the application of any kind of pressure is known as fusion welding. The joint made is permanent. The common heating sources are: - arc welding. - gas welding.

Non-fusion welding(Fig 3)
This is a method of welding in which similar or dissimilar metals are joined together without melting the edges by using a low melting point filler rod but without the application of pressure. The joint made is temporary.

Heat source may be arc or gas in fusion welding.

Examples are silver soldering, brazing etc.

WELDING METHODS

Pressure welding

Forge

Resistance

Thermit (Pressure welding) Butt

Seam

Projection

Spot
Plain

Flash

Fusion welding

Arc

Gas

Thermit (Fusion welding)

Metal

Carbon

Inert gas

Atomic hydrogen

Oxy-acetylene

Oxygen-other fuel gases

CURRENT

ELECTRON IN MOTION IS CALLED CURRENT

PRINCIPLE OF ARC WELDING

WHEN HIGH CURRENT PASSES THROUGH AN AIR GAP FROM ONE CONDUCTOR TO ANOTHER, IT PRODUCES VERY INTENSE AND CONCENTRATED HEAT IN THE FORM OF A SPARK. SPARK TEMP APPROX. 3600 DEG WHICH CAN MELT AND FUSE THE METAL VERY QUICKLY TO PRODUCE A WELD

Today, welding is the most commonly used method of fabrication of structural works, pressure vessels etc. Welded joint is the best solution for leak proof joints. Welded joints can be classified as follows based on position.
Butt

Tee
Lap Corner Edge

 For thin metal, say 2 mm, edge preparation not required. For thick sections, weld edge preparation is required to achieve full penetration welds. For C.S / LAS materials, edge preparation is done by gas cutting / machining For S.S materials, edge preparation is done by plasma cutting / machining

 GROOVE WELDS FILLET WELDS PLUG WELDS

 Groove weld

Fillet weld

 Provides better joint and takes more loads

Needs edge preparation, which facilitates weld penetration.

Used in butt, tee or corner weld joints. Careful fit-up is required for butt joints but slight mismatch is permitted Preferred for cyclic loads. Strength of weld is almost same as base materials.

No significant stress concentration due to weld shape.

 Joint efficiency depends on the type of weld examination, welding procedure and type of load. Weld reinforcement is a source of stress concentration and potential failure under repetitive load. Removal of weld reinforcement increases fatigue strength of the weld.

 Weld with an approximately triangular cross section joining two surfaces at right angles. Size is specified by leg size of its largest inscribed right triangle. No weld edge preparation required. Cheaper in cost. Stress concentration at root or toe causes failure under variable loads.

One sided fillet weld in tee or lap joining is generally avoided because of very low static and fatigue strength of this weld. Face of fillet weld may vary from convex to concave to reduce stress concentration. Stress induced in fillet weld is complex because of eccentricity of applied load, weld shape and notch effects. They consist of shear, tension and compressive stresses. Excessive welding may be a major factor contributing to an increase in welding cost, residual stresses and distortion.

 Circular weld made either by arc or gas welding through one member of lap or tee joint.
Plug weld holes are completely filled in case of thin plates and are partially filled in case of heavier plates.(i. e. above 10mm) Used to fix corrosion resistant lining to base metal Used as strength weld in single lap joints or nonpressure structural attachments.

ASME SEC.VIII DIV.1 Table-UW12 specifies joint efficiency for welded joints of pressure vessel. Joint efficiency depends on type of weld and degree of radiographic examination.

For butt weld joints, Joint Efficiency

Spot radiography 0.85

Full radiography
No radiography

1.0
0.7

Allowable load on fillet weld = Weld area based on min. leg size x 0.55 (Joint Efficiency) x Sa ( Allow. stress of material)

ASME SEC.VIII DIV.2 Full radiography for all pressure shell welds. Strength of weld is same as strength of base material

Welds subject to fluctuating stresses must be designed and evaluated according to design values based on fatigue analysis. Allowable stresses for welds under fluctuating loads will be substantially lower than the allowable stresses for welds subject to static load only. They will be based on endurance strength of material and member of cycles.

 Due to geometry of welded joints, defects and imperfections in welds, different metallurgical structures of weld metals. Effect of stress concentration in ductile materials can be ignored.

Stress concentration becomes significant if weld is hard and brittle or under shock or fluctuating loads. Stress concentration factors are used in design to ensure safer welded construction.

Weld joint design primarily depends on load requirements. Generally the following guidelines are to be followed for better design. Select the joint design that requires the least amount of weld metal. Use square-groove and partial joint penetration weld, wherever possible. Use lap and fillet welds instead of groove welds if fatigue is not a design consideration.

Use double-V or U-groove instead of single-V or U-groove welds as thick plates to reduce the amount of weld metal and to control distortion.

 For corner joints in thick plates where fillet welds are not adequate, beveling both members should be considered to reduce the tendency for lamellar tearing. Design the assembly and the joints for good accessibility for welding.

WELDING POSITION
The above types mean the shape of the joint, that is, how the joining edges of the parts are placed together. (Joint design is very important in fabrication work, especially where cost is important). Basic welding positions

Flat or down hand position

Horizontal position

Vertical position

Overhead position

All welding action takes place in the molten pool, formed in the welding joint/welding line.

The position of the welding joint line in respect of ground axis indicates the welding position.
All joints may be welded in all positions.

BASIC WELDING JOINTS AND POSITION (PIPES)

Pipes of all types and sizes are used a great deal today in transporting oil, gas and water. They are also used extensively for piping systems in buildings, refineries and industrial plants. Advantages of welded pipe

Pipes are mostly made of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and their alloys. They possess the following advantages.
Improved overall strength. Ultimate saving in cost including maintenance. Improved flow characteristics. Reduction in weight due to its compactness. Good appearance.

Methods of pipe welding

The following are the methods of pipe welding.

Metallic arc welding. Gas metal arc welding Tungsten inert gas welding Submerged arc welding Carbon arc welding

All these methods, except carbon arc welding are commonly used and the choice of welding depends upon the size of the pipe and its application.

Types of pipe joints Butt joint `T joint Lap joint Angle joint Composite joint Y joint Elbow joint

(Fig 1) (Fig 2) (Fig 3)

(Fig 2) (Fig 3)

Welding of pipe butt joints

Normally joints in pipes and tubes cannot be welded from the inside of the bore. Hence before starting to learn pipe welding, a person should be proficient in welding in all positions, i.e. flat, horizontal, vertical and overhead. All these positions are used to weld pipes. Pipe welding positions (Figs 4 and 5)

(Figs 4 and 5)

1 G Pipe weld in flat (roll) 2 G Pipe weld in horizontal 5 G Pipe weld in flat (fixed) 6 G Pipe weld in inclind (fixed) During the welding of butt joints the pipe may be

Rolled or rotated (1 G position) Fixed (5G position)

Rolled position (1 G) In the rolled position welding is done the same way as is done in flat position. Fixed position (5 G) (Fig 6)

Weld symbol convey design requirements to the shop in a concise manner. Welding symbol include the following.

Reference line
Arrow Basic weld symbol Dimensions and other data Supplementary symbols Finish symbols Specification, process or other reference

REPRESENTATION OF WELDS

TYPES OF ARC WELDING

Shielded Metal Arc Welding Tungsten Inert Gas Welding Metal Inert/ Active Gas Welding Submerged Arc Welding

SMAW

Electro Slag Welding Plasma Arc Welding

ESW PAW

TIG

MIG / MAG/FCAW SAW

Home

SMAW
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING
SMAW IS A PROCESS IN WHICH HEAT GENERATED BY THE ELECTRIC ARC IS UTILISED FOR FUSING THE METALS TO BE WELDED

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

When an arc is struck between the metal rod (electrode) and the workpiece, both the rod and workpiece surface melt to form a weld pool. Simultaneous melting of the flux coating on the rod will form gas and slag which protects the weld pool from the surrounding atmosphere. The slag will solidify and cool and must be chipped off .

FUNCTION OF FLUX MATERIALS

Deoxidation of Scavengers- Helps to Purify The Weld Metal Slag Formers -Slag Protects Weld Puddle From Atmosphere During Solidification Arc Stabilisers - Produce a Smooth Arc & Help Reduce Spatter & Smoke Alloying Elements - Provide the Necessary mechanical Properties Gasifier - Provide a Shielding Gas

SMAW
Advantages Variety of electrodes with different features Most versatile in use all position joints /joints with limited access Suitable for most alloys Equipment simple,inexpensive & portable. Disadvantages Finite length High dependence on welder skill Not amenable for automation

Types of flux/electrodes
Arc stability, depth of penetration, metal
deposition rate and positional capability are greatly influenced by the chemical composition of the flux coating on the electrode. Electrodes can be divided into three main groups: Cellulosic Rutile Basic

Rutile electrodes
Rutile electrodes contain a high
proportion of titanium oxide (rutile) in the coating. Titanium oxide promotes easy arc ignition, smooth arc operation and low spatter. These electrodes are general purpose electrodes with good welding properties. They can be used with AC and DC power sources and in all positions

Rutile electrodes
Features:

Moderate

weld metal mechanical

properties Good bead profile produced through the viscous slag Positional welding possible with a fluid slag (containing fluoride) Easily removable slag

Basic electrodes
Basic electrodes contain a high proportion
of calcium carbonate (limestone) and calcium fluoride (fluorspar) in the coating. This makes their slag coating more fluid than rutile coatings - this is also fast-freezing which assists welding in the vertical and overhead position. These electrodes are used for welding medium and heavy section fabrications where higher weld quality, good mechanical properties and resistance to cracking (due to high restraint) are required

Basic electrodes
Features:

Low

hydrogen in weld metal Requires high welding currents/speeds Convex and coarse bead profile Slag removal difficult

Power source
Electrodes

can be operated with AC and DC power supplies. Not all DC electrodes can be operated on AC power sources, however AC electrodes are normally used on DC

Welding current

Welding current level is determined by the size of electrode - the normal operating range and current are recommended by manufacturers. Typical operating ranges for a selection of electrode sizes are illustrated in the table. As a rule of thumb , an electrode will require about 40A per millimeter (diameter). Therefore, the preferred current level for a 4mm diameter electrode would be 160A, but the acceptable operating range is 140 to 180A

TIG WELDING

Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding became an overnight success in the 1940s for joining magnesium and aluminium. Using an inert gas shield instead of a slag to protect the weld pool, the process was a highly attractive replacement for gas and manual metal are welding. TIG has played a major role in the acceptance of aluminium for high quality welding and structural applications using AC power source.

TIG WELDING

Process characteristics
Arc

is formed between a pointed tungsten electrode and the workpiece in an inert atmosphere of argon or helium The small intense arc provided by the pointed electrode is ideal for high quality and precision welding

Process characteristics
Because

the electrode is not consumed during welding, the welder does not have to balance the heat input from the arc as no metal is deposited from the melting electrode When filler metal is required, it must be added separately to the weldpool.

Power source

TIG must be operated with a drooping / constant current power source - either DC or AC A constant current power source is essential to avoid excessively high currents being drawn when the electrode is short-circuited on to the work-piece surface. This could happen either deliberately during arc starting or inadvertently during welding

Electrodes DC Welding

It

is important to select the correct electrode diameter and tip angle for the level of welding current. As a rule, the lower the current the smaller the electrode diameter and tip angle

MIG

MIG WELDING
Metal

inert gas (MIG) welding was first patented in the USA in 1949 for welding aluminium. The arc and weld pool formed using a bare wire electrode was protected by helium gas, readily available at that time

MIG WELDING
From about 1952 the process became popular in the UK for welding aluminium using argon as the shielding gas, and for carbon steels using CO2. CO2 and argon-CO2 mixtures are known as metal active gas (MAG) processes. MIG is an attractive alternative to MMA, offering high deposition rates and high productivity.

Process characteristics

Heat for welding is produced by forming an arc between a metal electrode and the workpiece, the electrode melts to form the weld bead. The main difference is that the metal electrode is a small diameter wire fed from a spool. As the wire is continuously fed, the process is often referred to as semiautomatic welding.

Pulsed

Synergic pulsed MIG refers to a special type of controller which enables the power source to be tuned (pulse parameters) for the wire composition and diameter, and the pulse frequency to be set according to the wire feed speed.

Shielding gas

In addition to general shielding of the arc and the weld pool, the shielding gas performs a number of important functions
Forms the arc plasma Stabilises the arc on the material surface Ensures smooth transfer of molten droplets from the wire to the weld pool

Shielding gas

General purpose shielding gases for MIG welding are mixtures of argon, oxygen and C02, and special gas mixtures may contain helium. The gases which are normally used for the various materials are: steels

non-ferrous

CO2 argon +2 to 5% oxygen argon +5 to 25% CO2 argon argon / helium

Applications

MIG is widely used in most industry sectors and accounts for almost 50% of all weld metal deposited. Compared to MMA, MIG has the advantage in terms of flexibility, deposition rates and suitability for mechanization However, it should be noted that while MIG is ideal for high deposition rates, a high degree of manipulative skill is demanded of the welder.

GAS METAL ARC WELDING

GMAW/MIG-MAG/CO2/SOLID WIRE
Advantages Continuous electrode Higher currents possible Minimal post weld cleaning required Highly amenable to automation Disadvantages Equipment more complex & Costlier than SMAW Welder skill dependence still high,especially for out-of position welding Not amenable for customisation

FLUX CORED ARC WELDING

FLUX CORED WIRE- FCAW

FCAW Consumable is Often known as Inside Out as flux is inside & metal is outside . Modern Technology of Manufacture of FCAW wire involves Strip & Dry Premixed Flux as Basic Raw Materials The Quantum of Flux Addition & Flux Fill Ratio are Continuously Monitored to deliver Consistent Quality Products.

FUNCTION OF FLUX MATERIALS

Deoxidation of Scavengers- Helps to Purify The Weld Metal Slag Formers -Slag Protects Weld Puddle From Atmosphere During Solidification Arc Stabilisers - Produce a Smooth Arc & Help Reduce Spatter & Smoke Alloying Elements - Provide the Necessary mechanical Properties Gasifier - Provide a Shielding Gas

`TYPES OF CORED WIRES

CS/LAS Gasless (Self Shielded) A 5. 20
Gas

SS 5.22 5.22

Shielded Flux Cored A 5.20 Submerged Arc

Composite Gas

Shielded Metal Cored A5.18

GASLESS (SELF SHIELDED)

Generates its Own Protective Shielding Gas. Normally used in Flat & Horizontal Positions only . For CS most commonly used for Out Door Fabrication & also extensively used for Repair & Maintenance application For SS Mainly used for Joining & Overlay Welding Application

GAS SHIELDED FLUX CORED WIRES

For CS/LAS Currently Available in Two Types Positional Welding type - Rutile Slag Flat/ Horizontal type - Basic Slag Both Types Typically Run with Ar-25%Co2 or 100% CO2 Diameter Down to 0.9 mm Available For SS Positional Welding Type available in all grades suitable for CO2 Shielding

COMPOSIT SUBMERGED ARC

FCAW Consumables used mainly with Neutral Flux to give desired Weld metal Chemistry Typical Application include High Alloy Steel Compositions with special TDC Required in Small Quantity.(Tailor Made Product)

GAS SHIELDED METAL CORED

Composit or Metal Cored FCAW consumables most commonly used for robotic application in view of Higher Deposition Efficiency Bead on Bead Welding (NO Slag ) Better Wire Feeding.

CLASSIFICATION OF FCAW CONSUMABLES

For Metal Cored Wires as per AWS A 5.18

E 70 C X Y N HZ

For FCAW Wires as per AWS A 5.20

E XXT XMJ HZ

For SS FCAW Wires as per A 5.22

E XXX T X-X

FCAW -CORED WIRE

ADVANTAGES High productivity of Continuous Wire Welding Metallurgical Benefit of Flux Higher Current than Solid Wire Versatile Use-All Positional ,Wide Thickness Range Visible Arc -Easy to Use DISADVANTAGES Equipment more complex & Costlier than SMAW FCAW Wires more Expensive on Weight Basis but compensated by higher Productivity

SHIELDING GASES

Arc Characteristics Penetration Profile Mode Of Transfer Spatter Level Alloy Recovery Material Types

SHIELDING GAS COMPARISON E 81T-1-Ni1 VERTICAL UP @21 KJ/CM

95Ar/5CO2 75Ar/25CO2 50Ar/50CO2 100CO2 TYPICAL CHEMICAL ANALYSIS TYPICAL MECH. PROP(Mpa) TYPICAL IMPACT PROP(J) BEAD SHAPE C Mn Si YS UTS 0 Deg C -40Deg C .059 1.29. .44 540 603 123 91 FLAT .055 1.29 .44 531 586 125 84 FLAT .042 1.24 .39 502 568 109 48 CONVEX .041 1.16 .31 457 565 104 40 CONVEX

IMPORTANT
Making a Gas Decision Deciding on a particular shielding gas should be based on the specific manufacturers recommendation. Failure to do so may result in weld metal defects or in an deterioration in Mechanical properties.The manufactures guaranteed values are obtainable only when specified technical parameters are followed in full .

SAW

SAW WELDING
The first patent on the submerged-arc welding (SAW) process was taken out in 1935 and covered an electric arc beneath a bed of granulated flux Developed by the E O Paton Electric Welding Institute, Russia, during the Second World War, SAW's most famous application was on the T34 tank.

Process features
Similar to MIG welding, SAW involves formation of an arc between a continuously-fed bare wire electrode and the workpiece The process uses a flux to generate protective gases and slag, and to add alloying elements to the weld pool

Process features
A shielding gas is not required. Prior to welding, a thin layer of flux powder is placed on the workpiece surface The arc moves along the joint line and as it does so, excess flux is recycled via a hopper. Remaining fused slag layers can be easily removed after welding

Process features
As the arc is completely covered by the flux layer, heat loss is extremely low. This produces a thermal efficiency as high as 60% (compared with 25% for manual metal arc) There is no visible arc light, welding is spatter-free and there is no need for fume extraction

Process variants

According to material thickness, joint type and size of component, varying the following can increase deposition rate and improve bead shape

Process variants

SAW is normally operated with a single wire on either AC or DC current. Common variants are

Twin wire Triple wire Single wire with hot wire addition

Metal powdered flux addition

Flux
Fluxes used in SAW are granular fusible minerals containing oxides of manganese, silicon, titanium, aluminium, calcium, zirconium, magnesium and other compounds such as calcium fluoride The flux is specially formulated to be compatible with a given electrode wire type so that the combination of flux and wire yields desired mechanical properties

Flux
All fluxes react with the weld pool to produce the weld metal chemical composition and mechanical properties It is common practice to refer to fluxes as 'active' if they add manganese,silicon and any other alloying elements The amount of manganese and silicon added is influenced by the arc voltage and the welding current level

Applications

SAW is ideally suited for longitudinal and circumferential butt and fillet welds However, because of high fluidity of the weld pool, molten slag and loose flux layer, welding is generally carried out on butt joints in the flat position and fillet joints in both the flat and horizontal-vertical positions

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING Advantages SAW

Highest deposition rate Most suited for automation Consumables can be customised Lower operator fatigue Disadvantages Not versatile-no positional capability Generally not used for thin section Joint fit-up very critical Arc not visible

ELECTRO SLAG WELDING

Electro slag welding is a very efficient, single pass process carried out in the vertical or near vertical position and used for joining steel plates/sections in thicknesses of 25mm and above. It was developed by the Paton Institute in the Ukraine in the early 1950s and superseded the very high current submerged arc process for making longitudinal welds in thick-walled pressure vessels.

ELECTRO SLAG WELDING

Unlike other high current fusion processes, electro slag welding is not an arc process Heat required for melting both the welding wire and the plate edges is generated through a molten slag's resistance to the passage of an electric current.

ELECTRO SLAG WELDING

In its original form, plates are held vertically approximately 30mm apart with the edges of the plate cut normal to the surface. A bridging run-on piece of the same thickness is attached to the bottom of the plates. Water cooled copper shoes are then placed each side of the joint, forming a rectangular cavity open at the top. Filler wire, which is also the current carrier, is then fed into this cavity, initially striking an arc through a small amount of flux.

Benefits

Speed of joint completion; typically 1 hour per metre of seam, irrespective of thickness Lack of angular distortion Lateral angular distortion limited to 3mm per meter of weld High quality welds produced Simple joint preparation, i.e. flame-cut square edge Major repairs can be made simply by cutting out total weld and re-welding

PLASMA WELDING
Plasma welding is very similar to TIG as the arc is formed between a pointed tungsten electrode and the workpiece. However, by positioning the electrode within the body of the torch, the plasma arc can be separated from the shielding gas envelope. Plasma is then forced through a fine-bore copper nozzle which constricts the arc

PLASMA WELDING
Three

operating modes can be produced by varying bore diameter and plasma gas flow rate:

Microplasma: 0.1 to 15A Medium current: 15 to 200A Keyhole plasma: over 100A

Microplasma: 0.1 to 15A

The

microplasma arc can be operated at very low welding currents. The columnar arc is stable even when arc length is varied up to 20mm

Power source

The plasma arc is normally operated with a DC, drooping characteristic power source. Because its unique operating features are derived from the special torch arrangement and separate plasma and shielding gas flows, a plasma control console can be added on to a conventional TIG power source. Purposebuilt plasma systems are also available.

Medium current: 15 to 200A

At higher currents, from 15 to 200A, the process characteristics of the plasma arc are similar to the TIG arc, but because the plasma is constricted, the arc is stiffer. Although the plasma gas flow rate can be increased to improve weld pool penetration, there is a risk of air and shielding gas entrapment through excessive turbulence in the gas shield.

Keyhole plasma: over 100A

By increasing welding current and plasma gas flow, a very powerful plasma beam is created which can achieve full penetration in a material, as in laser or electron beam welding. During welding, the hole progressively cuts through the metal with the molten weld pool flowing behind to form the weld bead under surface tension forces. This process can be used to weld thicker material (up to 10mm of stainless steel) in a single pass

Applications

Microplasma welding

Microplasma was traditionally used for

welding thin sheets (down to 0.1 mm thickness), and wire and mesh sections and distortion. Although the equivalent TIG arc is more diffuse, the newer transistorised (TIG) power sources can produce a very stable arc at low current levels

The needle-like stiff arc minimises arc wander

Applications

Medium current welding When used in the melt mode this is an alternative to conventional TIG. The advantages are deeper penetration (from higher plasma gas flow), and greater tolerance to surface contamination including coatings (the electrode is within the body of the torch). The major disadvantage lies in the bulkiness of the torch, making manual welding more difficult. In mechanised welding, greater attention must be paid to maintenance of the torch to ensure consistent performance.

Applications

Keyhole welding
Deep penetration and high welding speeds. It can penetrate plate thicknesses up to l0mm, but when welding using a single pass technique, it is more usual to limit the thickness to 6mm.

WELDING CONSUMABLES

SELECTION CRITERIA OF WELDING CONSUMABLES

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION METALLURGICAL PROPERTIES MECHANICAL PROPERTIES CORROSION PROPERTIES WELDING FACILITIES DEPOSITION RATE POSITION OF WELDING WELDING PROCESS AVAILABILITY IN MARKET

TYPE OF WELDING CONSUMABLES

*FLUX COVERED STICK ELECTRODES LIGHT COATED MEDIUM COATED HEAVY COATED *BARE SOLID ROD (FILLER ROD) *BARE SOLID WIRE (ELECTRODE / FILLER ROD) *FLUX CORED WIRE (ELECTRODE) *BARE SOLID STRIP (ELECTRODE) *SHILEDING GAS (IN CYLINDERS) *SHIELDING FLUX (GRANULAR POWDER)

Welding consumable standards

IS

(Indian) AWS/ASME (American) DIN (German) EN (British) National/International Inspection/licenser Specification

ADVANTAGES OF FLUX COATING

TO STRIKE AND MAINTAIN ARC TO PROVIDE A GAS SHEILD OVER MOLTEN WELDPOOL TO DEOXIDISE AND REFINE WELDMETAL TO ADD ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN WELDMETAL TO PROVIDE A SLAG BLANKET ON MOLTEN WELDPOOL TO INCREASE DEPOSITION EFFICIENCY

Ingredients of Flux coating

FLUXING AGENTS SLAG FORMERS ARC STABILISERS GAS FORMERS SLIPPING AGENTS BINDING AGENTS DEOXIDISERS AND ALLOYING ELEMNTS

Mandatory parameters
CHEMICAL

COMPOSITION MECHANICAL PROPERTIES NOTCH TOUGHNESS ELCTRICAL CHARECTERISTICS TYPE OF COVERING

OPTIONAL PARAMETERS
NOTCH

TOUGHNESS REQUIREMENTS MOISTURE CONTENT DIFFUSIBLE HYDROGEN

SUPPLEMENTARY PARAMETERS
HARDNESS
CORROSION

RESISTANCE FERRITE CONTENT HOT TENSILE TEST WEAR RESISTANCE HOT CRACKING TEST COLD CRACKING TEST TEMPER EMBRITTLEMENT TEST

TYPES OF COVERING

0-HIGH CELLULOSE SODIUM 1-HIGH CELLULOSE POTASSIUM 2-HIGH TITANIA SODIUM 3-HIGH TITANIA POTASSIUM 4-IRON POWDER,TITANIA 5-LOW HYDROGEN SODIUM 6-LOW HYDROGEN POTASSIUM 7-HIGH IRON OXIDE,IRON POWDER 8-LOW HYDROGEN POTASSIUM, IRON POWDER 9-IRON OXIDE TITANIA POTASSIUM

AWS CLASSIFICATION FOR CARBON STEEL ELECTRODE

E.G. E 70 1 8
E-Manual Metal Arc Welding Electrode
70- Minimum UTS of 70 Ksi(70000psi) 1- Usability of electrode in all positions 8- Basic type of covering with Iron powder

AWS CLASSIFICATION OF LOW ALLOY STEEL ELECTRODE

E.G. E 80 1 8 B2

E-MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING ELECTRODE 80-MINIMUM UTS OF 80KSI(80000 psi) 1-USABILITY OF ELECTRODE IN ALL POSITIONS 8-BASIC TYPE OF COVERING WITH IRON POWDER B2-CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF 1CHROME - 1/2 MOLY STEEL

AWS CLASSIFICATION OF STAINLESS STEEL ELECTRODE

E.G. E 316 L

E-Manual metal arc welding electrode 316-Chemical composition of 17 to 20 Chrome,11 to14 Nickel,2 to 3 Moly L-low carbon variety

AWS CLASSIFICATION OF NON FERROUS ELECTRODE

E.G. E Ni Cu 7

E-MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING ELECTRODE NICU7-CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MONEL(70%NICKEL&BALANCE COPPER)

AWS SPECIFICATION FOR BARE RODS

A5.7-COPPER AND ALLOYS A5.9-CHROMIUM AND CHROMIUM NICKEL STEELS A5.10-ALUMINIUM AND ALLOYS A5.13-SURFACING A5.14-NICKEL AND ALLOYS A5.15-CAST IRONS A5.16-TITANIUM AND ALLOYS A5.17-CARBON STEEL(SAW) A5.18-CARBON STEEL(GTAW) A5.23-LOW ALLOY STEEL(SAW) A5.28-LOW ALLOY STEEL(GTAW)

SAW

E.g. F 7 P 4 EXXX HX
F-SAW FLUX 7-MINIMUM UTS OF 70 KSI(70000psi) P-POST WELD HEAT TREATED CONDITION 4-MINIMUM CVN IMPACT ENERGY OF 20 Ft Lb AT MINUS 40F EXXX-ELECTRODE WIRE HX- HYDROGEN DESIGNATOR

AWS CLASSIFICATION OF CARBON STEEL FILLER ROD

E.g. ER 70 S 2
ER-Electrode

Rod 70-minimum UTS of 70 Ksi S-solid Rod 2-minimum CVN Impact Value of 20 Ftlb at Minus 20 Deg Fahrenheit

AWS Classification of Low Alloy Steel Filler Rod

E.g. ER 90 S B3 L
ER-ELECTRODE

ROD 90-MINIMUM UTS OF 90KSI S-SOLID ROD B3-CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF 2.25 CHROME-1 MOLY STEEL L-LOW CARBON VARIETY

AWS CLASSIFICATION OF STAINLESS STEEL FILLER ROD

E.g. ER 308 L
ER-ELECTRODE

ROD 308-CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF 19 TO22 CHROME,9 TO 11 NICKEL,0.75 MOLY L-LOW CARBON VARIETY

AWS CLASSIFICATION OF NON FERROUS FILLER ROD

E.g. ER NiCr - 3
ER-Electrode

Rod NICR-3-chemical composition of 70%Nickel and 20%Chromium

FCAW CONSUMABLES AVILABILITY WITH AWS SPECIFICATION

E70T-1 FOR E71T-1 BOILER E70T5 QUALITY E81T1-W WHEATHERING E80T1-A1 FOR E80T1-B2 LOW ALLOY E8-T1-B3 STEEL E80T5-G FOR E90T5-K2 HSLA E100T5K3 STEELS E110T5-K4

E308TX-X FOR SS E316TX-X POSITIONAL E312TX-X WELDING E309TX-X E308.T0-3 FOR E309T0-3 CLADDING

CLASSIFICATION OF FLUX CORED ELECTRODES AWS 5.20

Electrodes Min. Tensile Strength x 10,000 psi Position : 1 - All Position 0 - Flat & Horizontal Usability

E X X T- XMJ HZ
Designates Spl. Impact Prop. At -40Deg C -27 J

Meeting Diffusible H2 Content 4/8/16 ml per 100 gms as indicated by Z -

CLASSIFICATION OF METAL CORED WELDING AWS 5.18

Electrode UTS X1000 psi Indicates Composit Rod

E 70 C - X Y N HZ
Diffusible Hydrogen Higher Impact &Lower Impurities (N Application) Type of Gas C / M Impact Properties

FLUX CORED ARC WELDINGAWS A 5.22

Electrode Alloy Composition Alloy addition L-Low Corbon Tubular or Flux Cored External Gas Shielding

E XXX XX X T - X

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERS

UNIFORM COVERING CONCENTRICITY GRIP END/ARC END TRIMMING CUP FORMATION ARC INTENSITY/STABILITY SMOOTH ARC FLUIDITY/VISCOSITY SLAG/OXIDE INCLUSIONS MOISTURE ABSORPTION LOW SPATTER COVERING THICKNESS CRATER CRACKING IDENTIFICATION SLAG DETATCHABILITY

SPECIFIC TESTS FOR WELDING

CONSUMABLES (CS&LAS)
CARBON STEEL CONSUMABLES WELDMETAL CHEMISTRY CVN IMPACT VALUE AT -50DEG C TENSILE/YIELD AFTER PWHT HARDNESS REQUIREMENT LOW ALLOY STEEL CONSUMABLES WELDMETAL CHEMISTRY DIFFUSIBLE HYDROGEN CONTENT

SPECIFIC TESTS FOR WELDING CONSUMABLES(SS&NF)

STAINLESS STEELCONSUMABLES
FERRITE CONTENT WELDMETAL CHEMISTRY CORROSION RESISTANCE CVN IMPACT VALUE AT -196 DEG C

NON FERROUS CONSUMABLES

WELDMETAL CHEMISTRY CORROSION RESISTANCE WELDABILITY

STORAGE AND DRYING OF CS&LAS CONSUMABLES

CELLULOSIC

TYPE-REDRYING TEMP-70 TO 80 DEG C/HR TYPE-REDRYING TEMP- 260 TO 420 DEG C /2HR ,HOLDING TEMP-30 TO 140 DEG C

BASIC

STORAGE&DRYING OF SS&NF CONSUMABLES

RUTILE

TYPE- REDRYING TEMP120TO150 DEG C /2HR SEMI BASIC TYPE-REDRYING TEMP-180 TO 200 DEG C/2HR BASIC TYPE-REDRYING TEMP-200 TO 250 DEG C/2HR

WELDING DEFECTS AND DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

PROPERTIE OF METALS

Physical Properties

density, thermal & electrical conductivity, melting point, boiling point, magnetic permeability etc. strength, ductility, hardness, toughness, fatigue strength

Mechanical Properties

Chemical Properties

for chemical composition of alloys

AND

Metallographic Structure

TEST TYPE VS PROPERTIES Tensile Test

Ultimate tensile strength Yield strength Ductility ( % elongation, % reduction in area) Modulus of elasticity Proportional limit Hardness of weld, HAZ & base material UTS for some material Toughness Ductile - Brittle transition temperature

Hardness Test (Brinel, Vickers, Rockwell, Knoop)

Toughness Test

Bend Test

Ductility Formability

Soundness of weld

DEFECTS USUALLY APPEARS IN THE WELDING

DESIGN

RELATED
PROCESS RELATED STRECTURE

WELDING

METALLOGRAPHIC

RELATED

WELDING PROCESS RELATED DEFECTS

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

Slag inclusions Porosity LOF / LOP Undercut

LOP / LOP Slag inclusions Porosity Porosity Tungsten inclusions

SUBMARGED ARC WELDING

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (TIG WELDING)

SOUNDNESS TESTION
Bend

Test Nick-break Test Fillet Break Test Micro Examination

METALLOGRAPHIC TEST
Macro Examination
(Magnification below 10X)

MICRO Examination
(Magnification above 10X)

WELDING DEFECTS

ARC BLOW IN DC ARC WELDING

Cause and effects of arc blow

When the arc deviates from its regular patch due to the magnetic disturbances it is called Arc blow

Whenever a current flows in the electrode a magnetic field is formed around the electrode. Likewise a similar magnetic field is also formed around the base metal.
Due to the interaction of these two magnetic fields, the arc is blown to one side forward or backward of the joint.

Due to this the following effects occur.

More spatters with less deposition of weld metal.

Poor fusion/penetration.
Weak welds.

Difficulty in deposition welds metal at the required place in the joint.

Methods used to control the arc blow The arc blow can be controlled by: welding away from the earth connection (Fig4 ) changing the position of the earth connection on the work changing the position of the work on the welding table. wrapping the welding cable fewer times around the work (Fig5) welding towards a heavy welding tack or a weld already made Keeping a magnetic bridge on the top of the groove joint Holding the correct electrode angle with a short arc. Use run on and run off plates If all the above methods fail to control the arc blow, change to AC supply.

(Fig4 )

(Fig5)

WELDING FAULTS
The appearance of a sound weld is characterized by a uniformly rippled surface, even contour, bead width, good penetration and absence of external defects. Fault A fault is one which does not allow the finished joint to withstand the required strength (load). Defects in welding may be considered under two heads. External defects Internal defects

External defects
Undercut

A groove or channel formed in the parent metal at the toe of the weld. (Fig 1, 2 & 3)
CAUSES Current too high. Welding speed too fast. Overheating of job due to continuous welding. Faulty electrode manipulation. Wrong electrode angle.

Fig 1

REMEDIES
Ensure proper current correct welding speed correct arc length correct manipulation of electrode

Fig 2

Fig 3

Overlap
An overlap occurs when the molten metal from the electrode flows over the parent metal surface without fusing into it.

CAUSES Presence of contaminants on the job or electrode surface, presence of high sulphur in the job or electrode materials. Trapped moisture between joining surfaces. Fast freezing o weld metal. Improper cleaning of the edges. REMEDIES Remove oil grease, rust paint, moisture, etc. from the surface. Use fresh and dried electrodes. Use good fluxcoated electrodes. Avoid long arcs.

CAUSES Low current. Slow are travel speed. Long arc. Tool large a diameter electrode. REMEDIES Correct current setting. Correct arc travel speed. Correct arc length. Correct diameter electrode as per metal thickness. Proper manipulation of electrode.

Porosity Blow hole or gas pocket Or Group of pine holes on the surface of the weld caused by gas entrapment.

Porosity
Porosity is the presence of cavities in the weld metal caused by the freezing in of gas released from the weld pool as it solidifies

Porosity

Spatter
Small metal particles which are thrown out of the arc during welding along the weld.

CAUSES

Welding current too high. Wrong polarity (in DC). Use of long arc. Arc blow. Uneven flux coated electrode.
REMEDIES Use correct current Use correct polarity (DC) Use correct arc length. Use good flux-coated electrode.

Edge of plate melted off Edge of plate melted off in lap and corner joints only. (Fig) CAUSES Use of oversize electrode. Use of excessive current. Wrong manipulation of the electrode. REMEDIES Select correct size electrode. Set correct current. Ensure correct manipulation of electrode. Deposit additional weld metal to increase throat thickness.

Crack A hairline separation exhibits in the root or middle or surface of the weld metal or parent metal.

Crack

Hydrogen Crack

Crack:
It is a discontinuity produced either by tearing of the weld metal when it is in plastic stage and is solidifying from the molten state and is still above 550 degree C which is called hot crack, or by fracture when cold when it is termed as cold crack.

Crack which is visible on the surface is called a surface crack and a crack which can only be detected by radiography or fracturing, say by nick break test, is called Internal crack.

Cracks in fusion welded joints may occur either in weld metal or in parent metal, e.g. in HAZ. Weld metal crack can generally be classified as longitudinal, transverse, crater and "hairline" which are usually associated with slag inclusions. Sometimes longitudinal crack in a weld seam may emanate from crater cracks. Parent metal crack usually means crack within the blackish HAZ, which may be longitudinal, or transverse to seam or sometimes just under the run. Transverse crack in Parent metal may also originate from crack in the weld metal.

CAUSES Presence of localized stress. Fast cooling. Improper welding techniques. Poor ductility, Absence of preheating and post-heating on high carbon steels.
REMEDIES Preheat and post-heating to be done on high carbon steels. Cool slowly. Use fewer passes. Use proper welding technique.

Internal defects
Incomplete penetration Failure of weld metal to reach the root of the joint .

CAUSES Edge preparation too narrow-lesser bevel angle. Welding speed too much. Less current. Use of larger dia. electrode. Inadequate cleaning or gouging before depositing sealing run. Wrong angle of electrode. Insufficient root gap. REMEDIES Correct edge preparation is required. Ensure correct angle of bevel and required root gap. Use correct size of electrode. Correct welding speed required. Correct current setting required.

Incomplete root fusion

A
B
A - Excessively thick root face
B - Too small a root gap C - Misplaced welds

C
D E

D - Power input too low E - Arc (heat) input too low

Incomplete root fusion

A LARGER DIAMETER ELECTRODE B SMALLER DIAMETER ELECTRODE

Slag inclusion
Slag or other non-metallic foreign materials entrapped in a weld. (Fig)

CAUSES Incorrect edge preparation. Wrong size and type of electrode. Excessive current. Long are length. Improper welding technique. Inadequate cleaning of each run in multi-run welding.

REMEDIES
Use correct joint preparation. Use correct type of electrode. Use correct arc length. Use correct welding technique. Ensure thorough cleaning of each run in multi-run welding.

Slag Inclusions

Effects of faults
Thickness of base metal reduced. Weakens the strength of weld. Reduces the throat thickness. Consumes more electrode. Change in base metal properties. Poor weld appearance. Waste of labour and materials. Failure of joints will lead to accidents.

WELDING

INSPECTION AND TESTING

INSPECTION OF WELD
Necessity of inspection
The purpose of inspection is to locate and determine the type of fault, Quality of joint and quality of workmanship. Types of tests Non-destructive test (NDT) Destructive test Determining the quality of the weld without destroying the weld is called a non-destructive test (NDT). The job can be used after the test. The test to be carried out on welded specimens by destruction is called destructive test. The job cannot be used after the test.

Visual inspection (non-destructive test)

This is one of the important inspection methods without much expense. This method of inspection needs a magnifying glass, a steel footrule, try square and welding gauges. Visual inspection is made in three stages namely: before welding during welding after welding

Visual inspection before welding

(The operator must be familiar with the type of work, electrode and welding machine). The following factors are to be ensured. The material to be welded is of weldable quality. The edges have been properly prepared for welding as per thickness of the plate.

Setting of root gap.

Proper procedure to be followed to control distortion.

Polarity of the electrodes in the case of DC welding current.

Current setting according to the size of the electrode and position of welding. Whether any jigs and fixtures are necessary to ensure proper alignment. Whether any jigs and fixtures are necessary to ensure proper alignment.

Proper facilities should exist for storing and drying of the electrodes.

Visual inspection during welding

The following points are to be checked. Studying the sequence of weld deposit. Examining whether each weld is cleaned adequately before making the next run in multi-run welding.

The following factors are to be ensured.

Shape of the bead, angle of electrode during welding, amperage, speed of travel, arc length, correct manipulation of the electrode and control of spatters.

Inspection after welding Surface defects in and around the welds, such as cracks, (longitudinal and transverse), undercut, overlap, excessive convexity of contour, the weld surface smoothness of the run and penetration and control of distortion are to be inspected.

Check points for inspection

Shape of profile shall be checked by measuring the dimensions of the weld. In butt welds the surface should be slightly convex. In fillet welds the contour may be convex or concave.

Uniformity of (surface) height and spacing of the ripples are an indication of the quality of workmanship.

Degree of undercut.
Smoothness of joint where welding is recommended. Freedom from surface cavities and trapped slag.

Deposition of runs, single or multiple.

Penetration bead in butt weld. Quality of the weld metal.

TESTING OF WELDS
Necessity of testing of welds

To obtain a dependable joint, it is necessary to inspect and exercise adequate control before, during and after welding. The various tests to be conducted on welded joints are determined mainly by the service conditions to which the welded components will be subjected to.
It is also necessary to draw samples on a scientific basis and test them not only to control the quality of the weld, but also to assess the skill and ability of the welder.

TYPES OF TESTING
All forms of testing can be grouped into two categories.

Non-destructive testing Destructive testing

Non-destructive testing (NDT) In this method the test to be carried out is done on the job itself without destroying it and after the test, the job can still be used.

Destructive testing
In this method the tests are carried out on welded specimens by destruction. The specimen will be spoiled during the test and cannot be reused.

In general the above mechanical tests are the least expensive and most reliable for assessing the weld quality.
Therefore, these tests are most widely carried out.

METHODS OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS

Non-destructive testing methods are classified as common testing and special testing methods. Common non-destructive testing Visual inspection Leak or pressure test Stethoscopic test (Sound) Special non-destructive tests Magnetic particle test Liquid penetrant test Radiography (X-ray) test Gamma ray test Ultrasonic test

Visual inspection Visual inspection is the simplest, fastest, economical and most commonly used test for detecting defects on the surface of the welded job. The weld surface and joint are examined visually with naked yes preferably with the help of a magnifying with naked eyes preferably with the help of a magnifying lens. Visual examination can help in detecting the following defects on the surface of the weld. Porosity Surface defects Undercut Improper profile and dimensional accuracy Poor weld appearance Incomplete penetration.

Leak or pressure test This test is used to test welded pressure vessels, tanks and pipelines to determine if leaks are present. The welded vessel, after closing all its outlets, is subjected to internal pressure using water, air or kerosene. The internal pressure depends upon the working pressure in the welded joint. The internal pressure may be raised to two times the working pressure of the vessel.

The weld may be tested as follows.

1. The pressure on the gauge may be noted immediately after applying the internal pressure and again after, say, 12 to 24 hours. Any drop in pressure reading indicates a leak.

2. After generating air pressure in the vessel, soap solution may be applied on the weld seam and carefully inspected for bubbles which would indicate leak. Stethoscopic (sound) test The principle of this test is that defect-free weld metal gives a good ringing sound when struck with a hammer whereas a weld metal containing defects give a flat sound. An ordinary physicians stethoscope and a hammer may be used to magnify and identify the sound. Structural welds and welds in pressure vessels have been successfully tested using this method.

Dye is applied on cleaned test surface After hold time, surface is cleaned using cleaner. A liquid developer (white in colour) is then sprayed on the weld. The coloured dye comes out in the shape of surface defects into the white developer coating. The defect can be seen in normal light with naked eyes.

Stages of LPI Following steps are involved in penetrant inspection : Surface preparation

Application of the penetrant

Controlling time for penetration.

Removal of excess penetrant.

Application of developer. Inspection Interpretation and Evaluation Post cleaning

Magnetic Particle Inspection

Liquid Penetrant Inspection is sufficient for locating only surface flaws while for locating slightly subsurface and surface flaws, magnetic particle inspection can be used. Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) is a technique used for testing ferromagnetic materials. The technique is basically simple and easy to operate. Austenitic stainless steels cannot be tested with this technique. This can be used for detecting discontinuities on surface or subsurface defects at a depth of a maximum of 6 mm under favourable conditions.

Principle
The job is suitable magnetised and magnetic lines of force or magnetic flux of enough density is made available. Discontinuities in the path of the magnetic flux create a disturbance in the uniform magnetic field causing flux leakage. The flux leakage set up of magnetic poles attracts iron powder when dusted over the testing zone and forms a pattern of the discontinuity. The flaw is indicated as a pattern on the surface giving the location and to some extent the nature of discontinuity.

Magnetic particle test

This test is used to detect surface defects as well as sub-surface (up to 6 mm depth) defects in ferrous materials.

While the test piece is magnetized, the iron particles will gather at the edges of the defect (crack or flaw) and can be seen as dark hair line marks with naked eyes.

Ultrasonic test Sound waves of high frequency are used in this test. This test is used to find out the discontinuities in the weldment. The sound waves can penetrate even up to 6 to 10 metres of steel.

A sound wave producing transmitter is placed on the job. The echo of the sound waves is directly shown on the calibrated screen attached with the ultrasonic testing unit.

If there is any obstruction due to the welding defect, it will be easily found out on the screen.
This test also can be used to find the thickness of metals.

Radiographic Testing
Radiography employs the penetrating capacity of ionising radidation like X or Gamms rays to produce a shadow of the internal condition of a job on a recording medium. The record in a film is known as Radiograph.

Radiographic test This is also called X-ray or gamma ray test. In this test internal photographs of the welds are taken. The test specimen is placed in between the X-ray unit and film. (Fig) Then the X-ray is passed. If there is any hidden defect, that will be seen in the film after developing it. Defects appear in the same manner as bone fractures of human beings appear in Xray films.

Tensile Test
The tensile test gives the values of the tensile strength of the weld and the percentage of elongation of the weld. This reveals the suitability of a joint welded with certain electrodes and base metals for a particular service condition.

DT

They are : transverse tensile test specimen . (Fig). all-weld metal tensile specimen. (Figures).

DT

DT Guided bend test

A guided bend test is one in which the specimen as in Fig 1 is bent to 180 through a bend testing jig as in Fig 2.

There are two types of specimens prepared for this one for face bend and the other for root bend. (Fig.) This test measures the ductility of the weld metal in a butt joint in a plate. This test shows most weld faults quite accurately and it is very fast. A sample specimen can be tested on destruction to determine (a) the physical condition of the weld and thus check on the weld procedure and (b) the welders capability.

DT

Impact test
Impact means application of a sudden force on an object. In an impact test of a weld, a test specimen with (Fig) is prepared from a test plate.

DT

This is further machined to have a V notch as in Fig. The test specimen with 10 mm square cross-section is used for charpy V impact test and one with 11 mm diameter circular cross-section is used for the izod impact test.

Fig shows an impact testing machine.

The impact test is used to determine the impact value of welds and base metals in welded products to be used at room temprature /low temperatures which are subjected to severe dynamic loading.

DT

Welding codes
A code of Construction is a set of Rules, Regulations and Ethical practices, required to be observed by Manufacturers either as a statutory requirement; or as a Contractual obligation to Statutory Authorities.

Public Sector Organizations and Engineering Societies such as: Indian Boiler Regulations (IBR) Indian Railway Services (IRS) Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) American Welding Society (AWS) American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) American Petroleum Institute (API)

have established Committees for the purpose of formulating Standard Rules for the Construction of Welded Vessels & Structures.

Primary aim of these Societies is to establish Rules of Safety governing Design, Fabrication and Inspection during Construction and Interpretation of the Rules and their Intent.
ASME CODE SECTION VIII DIV 1 & ASME SEC IX

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers set up a committee in 1911 to formulate standard rules for construction of steam boilers and other pressure vessels. The committee is calle the BPV Committee.

The ASME Boiler and Pressure vessle Code establishes rules of safety governing the design, fabrication and inspection during construction of boilers and pressure vessels. The ASME Code is a statutory code of construction for Boilers and pressure vessels in USA and Canada. The BPV Committee interprets the rules when questions arise regarding their content. Code Cases are used to amplify the rules.

Each manufacturer or contractor is responsible for welding work done by his organization, and must conduct the training and tests required to qualify in advance the welding procedure he will be using in construction and the performance of his welding personnel.

Welding parameters (also called welding variables) which affect the quality of weldment are listed in great detail in the Section IX of the Code.

WELDING PROCEDURE AND PERFORMANCE QUALIFICATIONS

WELDING DOCUMENTS
Welding

Procedure Specification (WPS) Procedure Qualification Record (PQR) Welders Performance Qualification (WPQ)

APPROACHES TO PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION

Actual

Procedure Qualification Testing Pre-qualified Procedure Mock-up tests

PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION TESTING

Welding Variables
Essential Variables Supplementary essential variables Non essential variables

ESSENTIAL VARIABLES

Base Metal P No. Process (es) Filler Metal A No. PWHT Gas Base Metal Thickness Weld Metal Thickness

SUPPLEMENTARY ESSENTIAL VARIABLES

Base

Metal Group No. AWS Classification Welding Position Heat Input

NON ESSENTIAL VARIABLES

Electrode

Length Joint Design BG & Method of BG Product form

TESTS REQUIRED FOR PQR ASME

Transverse

Tensile Test (2 Nos.) Bend Tests (4 Nos.) Impacts ( if required) ( 2 - 3 sets)

TYPES OF TENSILE TESTS

Transverse

Tensile Test Longitudinal Tensile Test

TYPE OF BEND TESTS ASME

Transverse

Bends

1. Root 2. Face 3. Side Longitudinal Bends 1. Root 2. Face

OVERLAYS
Corrosion

Resistant Overlays Hard Facing Overlays

TESTS FOR OVERLAYS (PQR)

Corrosion

Resistant Overlays DP (Barrier / Final layer) Chemistry (at qualifying height) Side Bends Hard Facing Overlays DP (Barrier / Final layer) Chemistry (at qualifying height) Hardness

WELDERS QUALIFICATION
Essential

variables Process (es) Base Metal Thickness Product form Pipe Diameter Welding Position Backing F Number

SUMMARY
Welding is a special process, and as such welding procedures and welders' performances (skill) must be pre-qualified and the parameters established during procedure qualification tests must be maintained during actual production.

Infrastructure industries must follow this philosophy in all those areas, where welding fabrication is undertaken and be guided by the stipulation of Welding Codes.

Weld Quality Management

Quality Management
Objectives

and Responsibility for Quality Concept of Customer Generic Product Categories Facets of Quality Concept of Processes Quality System Evaluation

Quality Management Practices

Quality

System design and Development Coordination of all Quality Activities Monitor Quality System Creating Quality Awareness Training & Motivation of Employees Quality Improvement Plan

Yields of Quality Management

Lower

Rework and Scrap Level Lower Defect Rate Higher Productivity and Performance Higher Quality Level On time delivery Higher Profits and Market Share Customer Satisfaction

Facets of Quality
Need

for the Product Product Design Conformance to Product Design Product Support

Design Considerations
Product

reliability Fitness for the purpose Adequacy of design Conformance to specifications and Code Operation and Maintenance

Weld Quality
Higher

quality than is needed is not only costly but also unnecessary Levels of quality may vary depending on service requirements Low quality welds leads to higher operational costs Use of fabrication codes and standards Fitness for the purpose

Inspection Methods
Visual

Inspection Non-Destructive Evaluation

Liquid Penetrant Magnetic Particle Radiography Ultrasonic Eddy Current

Inspection Methods (Contd..)

Destructive

Examination

Tensile Test Hardness Test Impact Test Bend Test Corrosion Test Metallography

Role of Welding Inspector

Familiarity

with

Products and Engineering Drawings National and International Codes and Specs. PQRs, WPSs and Welder Qualification Testing Methods and Evaluation

Inspection of Welds
Prior

to Welding

PQRs, WPSs and Welder Qualification Fabrication and testing Plans Materials Specification and Quality Welding Consumables Welding Equipment Joint design and preparation

Inspection of Welds (Contd..)

During

Welding

Joint Fit-up, distortion control and Tack Welds Conformance to WPS and Qualified Welders Pre-Heat and Inter pass Temperatures Control and Handling of Welding Consumable Visual and Non Destructive Evaluation

Inspection of Welds (Contd..)

After

Welding

Conformity to drawings and Specifications Cleaning and Visual Inspection Non Destructive Evaluation Repair Post Weld Heat Treatment and Testing Documentation

HEAT TREAMENT
ANNEALING

NORMALISING
HARDENING POST

& TEMPERING

HEAT THERMAL STRESS RELIEF

 WELDING MANAGEMENT

Weld

Base metal

Base metal

Heat effected Zone (HAZ

WELD JOINT DETAIL

MANAGEMENT
Management in an Organization means Managing

Men Machine Material

MANAGEMENT IN WELDING
Men
Welding

Engineer Welding supervisors Welders Welding Inspectors NDT and DT Technicians

MACHINES
Welding
Welding

power sources

Generators Rectifiers HF units Welding heads Cooling systems Safety equipment

ACCESSORIES
Welding

Holders Welding Cables Cable lugs TIG welding Torches, Cups Collets Welding Helmet, Goggles, Gloves Etc.

MATERIALS
Welding

consumables Electrodes Wire and Flux Filler rods Shielding Gases Welding Test Plates

OTHER DEPARTMENTS TO BE COORDINATED

Commercial Engineering Material

Management Quality Control Production Engineering Fabrication Shops and Sites

COMMERCIAL
Comments

on Customer Enquiries Previous Experience and Development needed Available Felicities Consumables and Equipment Cost and Time requirement Indigenous or Import requirements

 Technical

requirements and Acceptability Deviation or Clarifications needed Review and Approval of welding Documents Progress coordination

ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Comment

on Preliminary drawings Welding approach,Weld joint bevel design and Location of joint Material and Consumables requirements Test plates for Procedures and Welders Qualification PWHT requirements

MATERIALS MANAGEMENT
Welding Consumables Vendor Development Technical capabilities Previous history MI and TDC Requirements Cost, Time, Accessibility Reliability on Quality and Schedule delivery

QUALITY CONTROL

Quality Assurance Plan Preparation Third Party Inspection Co-ordination Materials Test certificates & Heat treatment Requirements Production Test Coupon Requirements Welding Procedures & Welders Qualification Testing

Welders Qualification Continuity Records NDT Requirements Documents Submission

PRODUCTION ENGINEERING
Materials

arrival Monitoring Work distribution to Fabrication Shops Arrangement of WPS and Welding Consumables Welding progress and Schedule Monitoring

MANAGEMENT IN WELDING
Men
Welding

Engineer Welding supervisors Welders Welding Inspectors NDT and DT Technicians

ROLE OF WELDING TECHNOLOGIST

Study

of Base Metal Weldability Selection of Welding Process Selection of Welding Consumables Selection of Welding Equipment Development of Welding Procedure Development of Welding Techniques Corrective actions During Welding

WELDING SUPERVISOR

Knowledge of Welding application Base Materials and Their Applications Welding Process Advantages and Limitations Consumables Storage and Handling Practices Welding Parameters and Their Effect on Weld Quality Preheat, Interpass, Post Heat and PWHT Welding Equipment and Their Applications Welders Qualification Requirements Welding Accessories Maintenance and Their Usage Ability to Guide the Welder Weld Inspection and Testing techniques

WELDERS

Should Perform the Weld As Per the WPS Should Have Theoretical Understanding and Practical Skill Should Know the Base Metal Characteristics for Welding Should Operate the Welding Equipment Should Understand The Weld Joint Criticality Should Have the Required Qualification

Welding Inspector

Should have the knowledge of Welding Processes Should Inspect the Welding Performance Should Ensure the parameters implementation as per WPS Should Record and Maintain the Welding History Should Inspect and Organise testing Should Identify defect and suggest repair procedure Should interpret the tested results and judge the quality.

WELDING TECHNOLOGY GROUP FUNCTIONS

Welding

Procedure Specification (WPS) Procedure Qualification Record (PQR) Welder Performance Qualification (WPQ) Welding Consumables Qualification (WCQ) Welding Equipment Welding Technology Experimental Shop Welding Trouble Shooting

WELDING PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION

Study the Requirements of Qualifications Arrange Test Plates, Consumables and Equipment Weld the Test Plate Conduct NDE tests Physical Testing Compare the Results With the requirements Approval and Recording

WPS GROUP ACTIVITIES

Comment on Enquiries, work order Data sheets customer specification etc. Comments on Preliminary Drawings Welding Consumables Estimation Welding Procedures and Welders Qualifications Requirements Welding Documents (WPS &WDS) Preparation and Approval Welding Progress Monitoring

Welding consumables

Consolidate the requirements given by the WPS group Define Technical Delivery Condition Material Indent and Float Enquires Technical Clarification on Offers Recommendation and Purchase order Release Material Receipt, Test certificates Comparison with TDC Material testing and Acceptance Storage, Issue and Monitoring

WELDERS QUALIFICATION RECORDS

Training

and Qualification of New Welders Monitoring old Qualification Maintain Continuity Records Renewal of Qualification

COMMOMLY AVAILABLE FCAW PRODUCTS

FCAW

Product for Positional Welding of CS / LAS With Gas Shielding. Self Shielded FCAW Product for CS Self Shielded for HF Products Gas Shielded SS Small Dia.Cored Wire Product for Fabrication Self shielded SS Cored Wire for SS Overlay /Cladding

SELECTION CRITERIA

Chemical & Mechanical Properties Commercial Availability of Product Suitability for Restraint Welds -Hydrogen Level in Weld Metal Type of Gas Shielding to be used Feasibility of Application Cost Factor

ACID vs BASIC vs METAL CORED vs RUTILE BASIC E70T-1 vs E70T-5 vs E70C-6M vs E70T-1
ACID UTS,Mpa YS Mpa %E 585 518 23 BASIC 535 450 28 METALCORED 575 517 27 RUTILE BASIC 585 497 27

IMPACT J -18 DeG C -29 Deg C

40-65 20-45

110-160 80-135

75-100 25-55 3-8 FLAT GOOD

80-125 65-100 2-5 FLAT VERY GOOD

HYDROGEN 5-10 2-5 Ml/100 GMS OPE.CHARAC. FLAT CONVEX BEAD SHAPE WETTING VERY GOOD FAIR

STORAGE & RECONDITIONING FOR SMAW /FCAW

SMAW Low Hydrogen Store 100-150 Deg C Recondition at 400 Deg C- 1Hr Stainless Recondition at 200 Deg C- 1Hr FCAW Plastic Recondition at 50 Deg C- 48Hr Min Coils Store 100-125 Deg C Recondition at 150 Deg C- 6-8Hrs Wire Spool Store 150 Deg C Basket Recondition at 250 Deg C- 2-3Hrs Higher Rebake Temperature , Faster Reconditioning

FCAW CONSUMABLES AVILABILITY

E70T-1 FOR E71T-1 BOILER E70T5 QUALITY E81T1-W

WHEATHERING

E80T1-A1 FOR E80T1-B2 LOW ALLOY E8-T1-B3 STEEL E80T5-G FOR E90T5-K2 HSLA E100T5K3 STEELS E110T5-K4

E308TX-X FOR SS E316TX-X POSITIONAL E312TX-X WELDING E309TX-X E308.T0-3 FOR E309T0-3 CLADDING

CORED STAINLESS STEEL WIRES

Metal Cored - Mostly metallic Powders in the

Core.Welding Characteristics similar to solid wire

Self Shielded -Generates its Own Protective Gas

.Used in Flat & Horizontal Position only

Down Hand Gas Shielded - For Flat & Horizontal

Positions

All -Position Gas Shielded -Newest Type for

Welding in all-position

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS

For Joining Similar Material For Cladding & Overlay Welding For Corrosion Resistance Application For Cryogenic Application For Dissimilar Metal Welding

METAL CORED

Deposition Efficiencies : 98% Shielding Gases : 98% Ar 2% O2 95% Ar 5% CO2 Higher Deposition Rates Than Solid Wire Types Commonly Available: 409 Ti 410 430 439

SELF- SHIELDED CSS

AWS 5.22

Application :Joining & Cladding Deposition Efficiencies : 75 - 85 % Increasing the Voltage Increase N2 Level at a Constant Current Decrease Ferrite Increasing Electrode Extension Decreases N2 Level at a Constant Current Increases Ferrite Types Generally available E 307T-3 E309T-3 E308MoT-3 E316LT-3 E308LT-3 E 347T-3

DOWNHAND GAS SHIELDED CSS AWS 5.22

Deposition Efficiency : 87 - 92% Shielding Gases : 100 % CO2 75% Ar & 25% CO2 ADVANTAGES Faster Travel Speeds Than Solid Wire Spray Arc Transfer Low Spatter Fine Rippled Bead Self Releasing Slag

ALL-POSITION GAS SHIELDED CSS

Deposition Efficiencies : 86 -90% Shielding Gases : 75% Ar & 25% Co2 100% CO2 Fast Freezing Slag System High Current Levels For Welding in the Vertical & Overhead Position Types Available E 308Lt-1 E317LT-1 E309LT-1 E309MoLT-1 E316LT-1 E347LT-1

MMAW ELECTRODE -CONSTITUENTS & THEIR FUNCTIONS```

CONSTITUENTS IRON OXIDE TITANIUM DIOXIDE MAGNESIUM OXIDE CAL. FLOURIDE POT. SILICATE OTHER SILICATES PRIMARY FUNCTION SECONDARY FUNCTION ARC STABILISER ARC STABILISER NIL FLUXING AGENT BINDER FLUXING AGENT ARC STABILISER NIL NIL DEOXIDISER NIL NIL

SLAG FORMER SLAG FORMER FLUXING AGENT SLAG FORMER ARC STABILISER SLAG FORMER & BINDER CAL. CORBONATE GAS FORMER OTHER ORBONATES GAS FORMER CELLULOSE GAS FORMER FERRO MANGANESE ALLOYING FERRO CHROME ALLOYING FERRO SILICON DE-OXIDISING

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING-SMAW STICK/MANUAL/MMAW

Advantages Variety of Electrodes with Different features Most versatile -All Positional Joints /Joints with Limited Access Suitable for most Alloys Equipment Simple ,Portable & Inexpensive Disadvantages Finite Length High dependence on Welders Skill Not Amenable to Automation

TYPES OF SLAG SYSTEM

Acid Basic Metal cored Rutile Basic (Semi- Basic)

SELECTING A WELDING PROCESS

Available Forms of Filler Metal Needed Available Welding Equipments Dimension of the Weldments Number of Pieces to be Welded

SOURCE OF HYDROGEN IN WELD

Welding Consumables Moisure in Flux (SAW) Excess Lubricant on Electrodes (FCAW &GMAW) Moisure / Hydrogen in Shielding Gas (FCAW &GMAW) Moister in Coating (SMAW) Moister in Fluxing Ingredients (FCAW)

Work Piece Moisture ,Oils .Rust . Paint

Ambient Conditions

EFFECTS OF

HYDROGEN ON STEEL
Porosity Loss

/Worm Tracking

of Ductility Cracking

Hydrogen

SELECTION OF PROPER GAS

Material Types -Carbon ,Stainless , Aluminium ,Etc Material Condition - Rusty ,Oily , Primed , Etc Types Of Metal Transfer - Short Circuit ,Spray , Pulse , Etc Weld Metal Mechanical Properties Job Requirements - Fit- Up - Penetration - Spatter Levels

PROPER SELECTION OF CONSUMABLES

Base Material Strength Base Material Composition Welding Position Joint Design &Fit-Up Thickness & Shape of Material Service Condition & /or Specification Production Efficiency & Job Condition

SELECTION CRITERIA

Chemical & Mechanical Properties Commercial Availability of Product Suitability for Restraint Welds -Hydrogen Level in Weld Metal Type of Gas Shielding to be used Feasibility of Application Cost Factor

COSTING

FIXED COST

Costing

Joint Preparation Fixturing Tacking

Preheating Cleaning Inspection

Rs

COSTING

POWER & EQUIP. ELECTRODE COST

Costing
2-5%

Power & Equipment

Electrode Cost 8-15 %

LABOUR & OVERHEAD

Labour & 80-85 % Overhead Cost

Costing
INCREASED WELDING PRODUCTIVITY

REDUCED WELDING COST

ELECTRODE EFFICIENCY & STUB END LOSS

DATA ON EFFECT OF STUB END LOSSES TYPE -E7018 ELECTRODES EFFICIENATY AT 50 mm EFFICIENATY AT 75 mm EFFICIENATY AT 100 mm EFFICIENATY AT 125 mm EFFICIENATY AT 150 mm STUB STUB STUB STUB STUB LOSS -70 % LOSS -64.5% LOSS -59.1% LOSS -54.5% LOSS -49.1%

450 mm

WELD METAL COST FORMULAS

1 Labour & Overhead = Labour & Overhead Cost/Hr ---------------------------------------Deposition Operating Rate (Kg/Hr) X Factor Electrode Cost / Kg --------------------------------Deposition Efficiency Gas Flow Rate Cu.Meters/ Hr. X Gas Cost / litre -----------------------------------Deposition Rate (Kg/Hr)

Electrode:

Gas

Flux

Flux Cost/kg X 1.4 ------------------------------------Deposition Efficiency

Power Cost

Cost Rs/KWH x Volts x Am ps ---------------------------------1000 X Deposition Rate (kg/Hr)

T otal Cost per kg of Deposited Weld Metal

= Sum of 1-5 , Above

WELD METAL COST WORKSHEET

FCAW AS COMPARED TO SMAW CALCULATING COST PER KG DEP. WELD - WELDING POSITION - FLAT COST CAL SMAW E 7018 / 5mm AT 250 A/28 V FCAW Vs. SMAW * COST RED.-

COST CAL.
FCAW E 71T-1 / 1.6 DIA. AT 300 A/28 V

Labour & Overhead Electrode: Gas

150/5X0.45 150/0.87 990 x 0.04 /5

66.67 150/2.5 X0.30 172.4 60 /0.65 7.92 NA 4 x 250 x 28 / 6.72 1000 x 2.5 253.7 Total Variable
Cost/kg Deposite

200 92.3

-133.33 80.4 7.92

Power Cost 4 x 300 x 28 /

1000 x 5

11.2 304
:

-4.48 -49.29

Sum of the Above Rework COST

Total Variable cost/kgDeposite

at 3% 253.72 /0.97

at 15% 261.56 303.51 /0.85

= =

357

-95.54

Basic Cost Saving per Kg with 49.29 FCAW Actual Cost Saving pr Kg with 95.54 FCAW

HOW WELDING SMARTER SAVED 120,000 MAN-HOURS

Walking Dragline - 12,000 MT Weight Boom Height : 95 M Hoist Depth : 55 M Bucket Load :325 MT Cylindrical Steel Base 32 M Dia. 2.5 M Wide & 140 MT Weight Replacement of the Base Estimated 160,000 Man- Hour with SMAW(80 Months) Estimated 40,000 Man- Hour with FCAW (20 Months)

Wedge Shaped Segments Make Up Dragon Base

2.5M

32M

150 mm

SS FCAW TO RESCUE OF ASPRIN MAKERS HEAD ACHE

SS Half Coil Reactor Found Leaking. Leak Spots HALF COIL Identified as likely restart points in OH Position. Small Dia. SS FCAW made it possible to reduce restart points Better approach made improved Fusion Possible.

ONE MINUTE WELD VERTICAL UP POSITION-6MM FILLET

FCAW

GMAW

One Minute Welds made using SMAW 3.2mm 70mm, GMAW-0.9mm 105 mm FCAW 1.2mm 300 mm Cost aspect based on above productivity.
LABOUR &OVERHEAD-RS.500

COST IN RS.

SMAW

2900 1300 900 FCAW GMAW SMAW DEP. COST PER KG

PROCESS SHARE FOR VARIOUS COUNTRIES

GTAW 2% GMAW 60% SMAW 30%
GTAW SMAW

GTAW 2%

GTAW

SMAW SMAW 20%SAW

SAW

GMAW

EUROPE GMAW
10%
GTAW 2% SMAW 80% SAW 8%

SAW 8%

GMAW 70%

GMAW

SAW8%

JAPAN
SAW8% SMAW 35%

GMAW 55%

GTAW2%

INDIA

USA

GLOBAL PROCESS SHARE OF WELD METAL

JAPAN SMAW SAW GTAW GMAW 20% 8% 2% 70% EUROPE USA 30% 8% 2% 60% 35% 8% 2% 55% INDIA 80% 8% 2% 10%

PROCESS SHARE IN GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

Steady Increase in Solid & Core Wire Consumption Covered Electrode Consumption will Decline & Stabilise around 30% In Developed Countries, CO2 Welding Accounts for more than 50% In Developing Countries like China & Korea CO2 Process Share is already around 15%