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Relationship
to performance.
Arousal
Drive
USEFUL DEFINITIONS
Arousal can be defined as: a state of readiness to perform that helps motivate performers the energised state, or the readiness for action that motivates a performer to behave in a particular way physiological state of alertness & anticipation which prepares the body for action
Theories of Arousal
We need the appropriate level of arousal / activation for the action we are to perform (known as optimal arousal), whether it is digesting a meal or catching a cricket ball. The effects of arousal can be either positive or negative. High arousal can cause us to worry & become anxious, which is negative if it isnt controlled. Raising arousal level can also cause a state of readiness to perform this is largely a positive aspect & can enhance performance.
Key component is performers level of skill & sees the relationship between arousal & performance as linear: performance increases in proportion to arousal. A very high arousal level would result in a high performance level, provided skill is well-learned. However, if the skill is not well-learned, performance of skill will deteriorate as arousal increases.
This theory helps explain why beginners find it difficult to perform well under pressure. Often beginners skill level decreases if they are competing in a relay race using new skills, e.g. football dribbling race. However, also explains how experienced athletes perform better under pressure using well-learned skills, e.g. good tennis players play better against stronger opposition. Clearly the impact of arousal on performance is complex, consider the following:
Arousal improved Ed Moses performance but devastated the performance of the Cambridge student. Both athletes were performing well-learned tasks. Drive theory fails to explain this outcome, & its focus on the well-learned task cannot be applied to the many sports skills which combine both well-learned & novel elements.
Inverted U theory
(Yerkes & Dodson, 1908)
An increase in arousal causes improvement in performance up to an optimal point (moderate arousal level). After this point, increased arousal leads to deteriorated performance.
Level of expertise a beginner needs only very low levels of arousal to perform well. Because control of the skill is not yet automatic, i.e. a novice may lose concentration or become anxious, therefore low levels result in optimum performance. In contrast, such low levels of arousal will have no effect on the elite performer, who needs much higher levels to produce optimum performance
Personality personality types who enjoy high levels of excitement & are generally more extrovert can cope in a high-arousal situation. People who are more introverted are general more likely to perform well under low-arousal conditions.
Catastrophe theory
(Hardy,1988 & 96)
Sports psychologists have noted that performance does not always gradually decrease as arousal increases, as shown in the inverted U theory. Instead many top sports people go to pieces in the big event. Catastrophe theory shows a much more dramatic decline in performance.
Cognitive anxiety psychological, e.g. worry about failing. (NB cognitive most crucial in determining performers reaction to high levels of stress).
/movements/speed/direction/ position of ball / distance between ball & players/positions on pitch/ hear instructions from teammates, manager/ referees whistle/crowd. He will also hear his own breathing/ sound of passing train/billboards/lights of stadium etc. Footballer will not perform well because of broad attentional field!
Too much arousal may undermine athletes ability to narrow his attentional focus. Arousal increases immediately before performance of fine motor task causes additional attentional narrowing which seems to damage performance. Attentional narrowing causes player to scan attentional field less often or use his dominant attentional style, rather than several attentional styles as the occasion demands.
Although the effects of attentional narrowing create a handicap for our footballer, who needs to be aware of all that is happening around him, its advantageous to the gymnast because a narrow attentional focus enables her to shut out distractions.