INTRODUCTION TO

ENGINEERING CALCULATION
UNIT & DIMENSION
1) DENSITY



where:
= density
M = mass
V = volume
Unit SI : kg/m
3

American Unit : Ib
m
/ft
3


H2O
= 1000 kg/m
3

= 1 g/cm
3

= 62.4 Ib
m
/ft
3

V
M
=
2) CONCENTRATION

Concentration of A in a mixture of A and B:







SI unit = kg/m
3
Widely used = mg/L
ppm (parts per million) = mg/L (for water)
H
2
O : 1 mL = 1 g by weight (when water = 1 g/cm
3
)















Percentage: mass ratio or volume ratio














VolumeB V
VolumeA V
MassA M
ionA Concentrat C
Where
L mg
V V
M
C
B
A
A
A
B A
A
A
=
=
=
=
=
+
= : /
ppm
g
g
g
g
cm
g
mL
g
L
mg
1
1000000
1
1000
001 . 0
1000
001 . 0
1000
001 . 0
1
3
= = = = =
massB M
massA M
A percentage
Where
x
M M
M
B
A
A
B A
A
A
=
=
= u
+
= u 100

3) Flow Rate:
Gravimetric or Mass flow rate, Q
M
(kg/s, Ib
m
/s)
Volumetric (volume) flow rate, Qv (m
3
/s, ft
3
/s)
Q
M
= Qv
Where = density
Relationship between mass flow of A, concentration of A & total volume flow (A+B)
Q
MA
=
C
A
x Q
V(A + B)
Q
MA
= Mass flow rate component A
C
A
= Density component A
Q
v(A+B)
= Total volume flow A + B

Example: Wastewater treatment plant discharges a flow of 1.5 m
3
/s (water & solids) at
a solids concentration of 20 mg/L. How much solids is the plant discharging each day?
Solution:
Q
MA
= C
A
x Q
V(A+B)


% 1 01 . 0
100
1
10 1
10 1
10000
6
4
= = = =
x
x
ppm
Example: A wastewater sludge has a solids concentration of 10,000 ppm.
Express this in percent solids (mass basis), assuming that the density of the
solids is 1 g/cm
3
.

Solution:


day kg
day
s
x
m
L
x
s
m
x
mg
kg x
x
L
mg
Q
MA
/ 2592
86400
10
5 . 1
10 1
20
3
3 3 6
=
(

=

Retention / Detention /Residence Time
Average particle of fluid spend in a container through
which the fluid flow (exposed to treatment or a reaction)
Or the time it takes to fill a container.
t = V / Q
where t = residence time
V= volume of container (L
3
)
Q= flow rate into the container (L
3
/t)
Example:
A lagoon has a volume of 1500 m
3
, and the flow into the
lagoon is 3 m
3
/hour. What is the retention time in this
lagoon.
t = 1500 m
3
/ (3 m
3
/hour) = 500 hours

CONCEPT OF MATERIAL
BALANCE
OBJECTIVE
To obtain quantitative relationship between
inflow and outflow of a process:
System WITH chemical reaction
System WITHOUT chemical reaction




PROCESS
Influent effluent
System Boundary
Process: An operation which causes physical or chemical transformation

System: Partly or Whole of a specified process for material balance

Law of Mass conservation: New materials will not be produced in a system, and the
present materials in the system will not be destructed.
A black box with one inflow
(influent) and one outflow
(effluent)
Material Balance Equation
Accumulation Rate = Input Rate + Generation Rate Output Rate Consumption Rate


Example: Every year 50, 000 persons enter city A, while 75, 000
persons leave the city, 22, 000 babies are born and 19, 000 die. Give the
material balance equation to show the population at city A.

A (person/yr) = 50, 000 p/yr + 22, 000 p/yr 75, 000 p/yr 19, 000 p/yr

A = -22, 000 persons/year
Steady-State Process
System WITHOUT chemical reaction
Inflow Rate = Outflow Rate
System WITH chemical reaction
Inflow Rate + Generation Rate Output Rate
Consumption Rate = 0

Steady-state : Flow not changing with time

Accumulation Rate = 0
System WITHOUT chemical
reaction
Example:
A gravity thickener is used in the thickening process of
sewage sludge as in the figure. What is the C
u value
.


GRAVITY
THICKERNER
Q
i
= 40 m
3
/hr
C
i
= 5000 mg/L
Q
o
= 30 m
3
/hr
C
o
= 25 mg/L
Q
u
= 10 m
3
/hr
C
u
= ???
Answer
Volume accumulated = Volume in Volume out +
Volume produced Volume consumed
0 = 40 (30 + Qu) + ) 0
Qu = 10 m
3
/hr
For solid mass balance:
0 = (CiQi [(CuQu) + (CoQo) + 0 0
0 = (5000mg/L)(40 m
3
/h) [Cu(10m
3
/hr) +
(25mg/L)(30 m
3
/h)
Cu = 19,900 mg/L
Example:
Bandar Baru Bangi generates domestic waste of approximately 120
tons/day. All wastes are sent to a transfer station before being
transported to a landfill. 20 tons/day of the wastes are recycled and the
rest are sent to the landfill. How much waste will have to be sent to the
landfill?







ANSWER
[Mass per unit of refuse IN] = [Mass per unit of refuse OUT]
120 = 20 + M
M = 100 tons/day mass of refuse to the landfill
TRANSFER
STATION
120 ton/day
Recycle
20 ton/day

Landfill???
Questions
1) An air pollution control device is used to remove particles
with concentration of 125, 000 ug/m
3
at a flow rate of 180
m
3
/s. The device has successfully removed 0.48 metric
ton/day. What is the exhaustion rate of the particles to the
air? Given 1 metric ton = 10
6
g.

2) Sludge contains 80 % water weight. It is required to dry so
that the sludge weight is now 80%. Estimate how much
water needed to be removed.

3) A river with flow rate of 10 m
3
/s has heavy metal (zinc)
concentration approximately 20 mg/L. An electronic factory
released zinc concentration at 40 mg/L to the river and the
flow rate of 5 m
3
/s. With the assumption of complete
mixing between the two flows, estimate zinc concentration
at the river downstream.
Question 1
QC
z1
= 0.48 metric ton/hari
= 5.6 g/s

Air Pollution Control
Device
Q = 180 m
3
/s
C
zi
= 125 000 g/m
3

= 0.125g/m
3

Removal
Effluent to air
QC
z2
= ???
Influent Rate = Effluent Rate
(180 m
3
/s)(0.125 g/m
3
) = 5.6 g/s + QC
z2

QC
z2
= 16.9 g/s (exhaustive rate of particles to air)
Influent
Question 2
Drying Equipment
Wet Sludge (100 kg)

80% water weight
20% sludge weight
Water removed (Y kg) ????
Dry Sludge (X kg)
20% Water Weight
80% Sludge Weight
Sludge Balance:
Influent (sludge) = Effluent (sludge)
0.2 (100) = 0.8 (X)
X = 25 kg

Water Balance:
Influent (water) = Effluent (water)
0.8 (100) = 0.2 (25) + Y
Y = 75 kg
Question 3
Q
S
= 10 m
3
/s = 10 000 L/s
C
S
= 20 mg/L
Q
E
= 5 m
3
/s = 5000 L/s
C
E
= 40 mg/L
Q
M
= 15 m
3
/s = 15 000 L/s
C
M
= ???
Influent Rate = Effluent Rate
(10 000)(20) + (5000)(40) = (15 000)(C
M
)
C
M
= 26.67 mg/L
EXAMPLE OF MULTIPLE SYSTEM
Figure 1 shows a flow of sludge thickening process by using a centrifuge.
The sludge solid concentration is, C
0
= 4% and is required to be thickened
to a concentration, C
E
= 10% by using the centrifuge. However, the
centrifuge is capable to produce sludge with solid concentration of 20%
from sludge with solid concentration of 4%. Thus, the facility operator
decided to make a bypass at the inflow to the centrifuge, and later mix it
with the outflow from the centrifuge with solid concentration of 20% to
produce sludge with solid concentration of 10%. Assuming the solid
density is 1 g/cm
3
, which is similar to water density. Determine the flow
rate in each flow.
Bypass

Q
B
= ??
C
B
= C
0
= 4% Q
0
= 1
gal/min

C
0
= 4 %

Q
A
= ??
C
A
= 4%
Q
C
= ??
C
c
= 0.1%
CENTRIFUGE
Q
K
= ??
C
K
= 20%
Q
E
= ??
C
E
=
10%
FIGURE 1
SOLUTION
Assuming Steady State condition
1) Overall Balance
Bypass

Q
B
= ??
C
B
= C
0
= 4% Q
0
= 1
gal/min

C
0
= 4 %

Q
A
= ??
C
A
= 4%
Q
C
= ??
C
c
= 0.1%
CENTRIFUGE
Q
K
= ??
C
K
= 20%
Q
E
= ??
C
E
=
10%
Q
0
= Q
c
+ Q
E
Equation 1
Q
0
C
0
= Q
C
C
C
+ Q
E
C
E
Equation 2
Answer: Q
C
= 0.606 gal/min
Q
E
= 0.394 gal/min
2) Balance at the mixing point
Q
B
= ??
C
B
= 4% solid
Q
K
= ??
C
K
= 20% solid

Q
E
= 0.394 gal/min
C
E
= 10 % solid
Q
B
+ Q
K
= Q
E
Equation 1
Q
B
C
B
+ Q
K
C
K
= Q
E
C
E
Equation 2
Answer: Q
K
= 0.1478 gal/min
Q
B
= 0.2462 gal/min
3) Balance at the centrifuge









Q
A
= ??
C
A
= 4% solid
Q
K
= 0.1478 gal/min
C
K
= 20% solid
Q
E
= 0.394 gal/min
C
E
= 0.1% solid
Q
A
= Q
K
+ Q
E

= 0.7538 gal/min
System WITH chemical reaction
Kinetic Reaction:
Mathematical expression describing a rate at which the mass or volume of some
material A is changing with time, t is:
dA/dt = r where r is reaction rate.
Zero-order Reaction
r = k where k = constant reaction rate (mass/time)
First-order Reaction
The change of component A is proportional to the quantity of the component
itself.
r = kA where unit for k =time
-1

dA/dt = kA
Second-order Reaction
The change is proportional to the square of the component A.
r = kA
2
where unit for k = (time x mass)
-1

dA/dt = kA
2

If material A is being USED or DESTROYED, hence:
r = -k, r = -kA, r = -kA
2

First Order Reaction:
dA/dt = r = -kA
The equation is integrated between A
0
(t=0) and
A (t=t)





kt A A
e
A
A
atau
kt
A
A
dt k
A
dA
kt
t A
A
=
=
=
=

} }
0
0
0
0
ln ln
ln
0

Reactor:
Tank or container used to undergo a reaction (chemical or
biological).
Reactor is classified according to the flow characteristics and
mixing conditions:
Mixed-Batch Reactor



Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)


Completely Mixed Flow (CMF)/Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
(CSTR)
Q
C
A0

Q
C
A

Q
C
A0

Q
C
A

V
V
V
C
A0
= concentration of A at time t=0
= mass/volume
A
0
= Mass of material A at time t=0
C
A
= Concentration of A at any time t
= mass/volume
Q = Flow rate
V = Reactor volume
Example 1 (CSTR)
A volume of CSTR is required to change
component A to 98%. Kinetic reaction is
r
A
= kC
A
where k = 0.10s
-1
. The inflow
rate is 75 liter/s with the initial
concentration, C
A0
is 0.05 mol/L. There is
no volume difference in the reaction.
Inflow Rate + Generation Rate Outflow Rate Consumption Rate = Accumulation Rate








Q = 75 L/s
C
A0
= 0.05 mol/L
Q = 75 L/s
C
A
= 0.001mol/L(??)

V
L
kC
C C Q
V
V kC C C Q
V kC QC QC
A
A A
A A A
A A A
750 , 36
) 001 . 0 ( 1 . 0
) 001 . 0 05 . 0 ( 75 ) (
) (
0
0
0
0
=

=
=
=
V
dt
dC
V r QC V r QC
A
A A
= +
2 1 0
Example 2 Mixed Batch Reactor
An industrial wastewater treatment process is using activated carbon to remove
colour from water. The reduction in colour is according to first-order reaction in
batch-adsorption system. If k value is 0.35/day, how much time is required to
remove 90% of the colour in the water?
C
A0
= intial colour concentration
C
A
= colour concentration at time t
To remove 90% colour, it is required to achieve 0.1C
A0


( )
days t
t
t
C
C
kt
C
C
A
A
A
A
58 . 6
35 . 0
302 . 2
35 . 0 1 . 0 ln
35 . 0
1 . 0
ln
ln
0
0
0
= =
=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
Example 3
Disinfection process is required to destroy
coliform organisms in drinking water. This
is a first-order reaction, with k value, k =
1.0/day. The influent concentration, C
0
is
100 coli/mL. The volume of reactor, V is
400 L, with the flow rate, Q is 1600 L/day.
Determine the coliform concentration in the
effluent.
Inflow Rate + Generation Rate Outflow Rate
Consumption Rate = Accumulation Rate


QC
0
+ 0 QC rV = 0
Where r = kC

(1600)(100) - (1600)(C) (1)(C)(400) = 0

C = 80 coli/mL