Textbook: Campbell Biology, 9th Edition 2010 by Reece, Urry, Cain, Wasserman Pearson

Bio 210 Chapters 1, 2, 3

Biology 9th Edition Campbell & Reece

Introduction: Themes in the Study of Life

Chapter 1

Major Topics for Chapter 1

Properties of living beings Levels of organization of living beings Evolution The Scientific Method

Properties of Living Beings

Order: structure and function Reproduction Energy Processing: exchange of matter and energy with environment
Respiration, excretion, digestion, etc.

Growth, development Response to environmental stimuli

Light, gravity, cold, food, predators, etc.

Regulation Adaptation

Order

Reproduction

Reproduction

Growth, Development

Growth and Development

Energy Processing

Response to Environment

Regulation

Homeostasis
Maintenance of stable internal conditions in an organism, regardless of external fluctuations
these stable internal conditions are referred to as dynamic equilibrium achieved through positive and negative feedback mechanisms

Dynamic Equilibrium in Tightrope Walking

From chongonation.com

Positive and Negative Feedback

Positive feedback augments a change Negative feedback counteracts a change Both are regulatory mechanisms used by living beings to maintain homeostasis

Positive or Negative Feedback?

Positive or Negative Feedback?

Is sweating positive or negative feedback?

If it gets hot, we sweat
What does sweating accomplish?
A) cools us off or B) heats us even more Remember: a positive feedback mechanism augments a change, while a negative feedback mechanism counteracts a change

Adaptation

goblin shark: Mitsukurina owstoni

Batesian Mimicry
tastes good

tastes bad tastes good

tastes bad

Other examples of adaptation

Sharp eyesight in eagles Waterproofing on ducks feathers Protrusible jaws of goblin sharks And lots of others

Hierarchy of Organization of Life

Descending: going down from biosphere to molecule
Each level is smaller than the one before it Each level has characteristics of life

Biosphere, ecosystem, community, population, organism, organ system, organ, tissue, cell, organelle, molecule

Ascending: going up: from molecule to biosphere

Each level is larger than the one before it

Descending levels of biological organization (cont.)

8: cells

9: organelles

Descending Levels of 10: molecules Biological Organization (cont):

6: organs and organ systems

7: tissues

Put the following groups in ascending order

Organism, cell, ecosystem Mango tree, Amazon rainforest, E. coli, elephant liver

Populations and Communities

Which group includes the other?

Population or Community?

Classification of living beings: 3 domains

Domain Eubacteria: prokaryotes (no nuclei or membrane-surrounded organelles) Domain Archaea: prokaryotes, different biochemically from eubacteria

Domain Eukarya: eukaryotes, cells with nuclei and other membrane-surrounded organelles
endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, etc. Protists (include multiple kingdoms) Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Fungi Kingdom Animalia

Eubacteria, Archaea and most Protists are unicellular

Which of these three groups does not represent a domain? What characterizes the cells of these organisms?

Tree of Life

www.cartage.org

Unity and Diversity

Evolution: main theme of biology

Descent with modification Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace Individual variation between members of a species causes differences in survival
This variation may be heritable Inherited variation is caused by changes in DNA

Natural selection allows those organisms best adapted to produce most offspring
Over time, the population changes

Natural Selection as Mechanism of Evolution

Members of a population belong to the same species, and can breed with each other

Populations and Communities

Population: group of individuals belonging species to the same ________________ and living in the same area. Community: group of populations living in the same area. Includes organisms species belonging to different ________________.

javalab.cs.uni-bonn.de/research/ darwin/images/darwin.jpg

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

abacus.gene.ucl.ac.uk/ jim/Mim/Wallace.JPG

Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)

Evidence for Evolution

Fossils: preserved remains of extinct species Changes in populations can be observed even now
Bacteria, lizards, finches, humans, fish, corn etc.

Adaptation of organisms to their environment

 Paleontologist Paul Sereno with Jobaria leg bones Extinct organisms show that life on Earth has not always been as it is today

Missing Links
Tiktaalik: intermediate between fish and amphibians: 375 million years old

Natural Selection causes adaptation of the population to the Environment

Variations are selected, NOT created

Speciation as a Result of Natural Selection: Galapagos Finches

Natural Selection leads to Adaptation to Environment

Camouflage

Adaptation: Flight in a Mammal

Evolution results from the adaptation of organisms to their environments

Mimicry

Scientific Method
Inquiry, learning about world
Systematic approach Observations Question (what causes observed phenomenon?) Hypothesis: explanation for observations
Scientific hypothesis makes a testable prediction or assertion

Experiment: tests hypothesis

Results: may or may not support hypothesis
If hypothesis not supported by experimentation, it is abandoned Ideally, scientific method is self-correcting, leads to knowledge and truth

Support or Falsification of Hypothesis

If hypothesis is supported by experimental results, it can be retained
with extensive support and corroboration, can develop into a theory

If hypothesis is not supported (after repeated attempts) it has been falsified

has to be modified or abandoned a good hypothesis must be falsifiable

Chapter 1 Topics Recap

Properties of Living Beings Hierarchy of Organization of Life Evolution
Evolution Properties

Hierarchy

The Scientific Method

Scientific Method

The Chemical Context of Life

Chapter 2

Matter and Life

Both living beings and nonliving things are composed of atoms Cell: smallest independent unit of life Atom: smallest unit of matter
Smallest characteristic part of an element
Atom of silver, carbon, oxygen

92 naturally occurring elements: periodic table

Subunits of Atoms
Atoms composed of smaller subunits
Nucleus: protons, neutrons
Protons: give an atom its identity, positive electrical charge Neutrons: no charge Isotopes: same element, different # of neutrons

Electrons: orbit around nucleus

Electrons: negative charge, almost no mass

Protons, neutrons and electrons have no personality, every proton is identical to every other proton

Atomic Mass
Atomic mass = mass of protons + mass of neutrons Each proton and each neutron has a mass of 1 atomic mass unit (amu)
One amu = 1 dalton

12C

(carbon 12): 6 protons + 6 neutrons 14C (carbon 14): 6 protons + 8 neutrons

12C

and 14C are isotopes of carbon

Isotopes of Hydrogen
genesismission.jpl.nasa.gov/ science/mod2_aei/

Same number of protons (same element) Different number of neutrons (different atomic mass)

Shells and Orbitals

Electrons are arranged in shells
Closer to nucleus, stronger attraction First shell contains one orbital
2 electrons

Second shell: four orbitals

8 electrons

Shells are filled from inside to outside Complete shells give chemical stability Incomplete shells cause chemical reactivity

Partial Periodic Table

energy levels (shells) are shown

Atomic Structure of Helium

Electron Orbitals have Different Shapes

Chemical Bonds
All chemical reactions: transfer or sharing of electrons

Covalent Bonds
Electrons are shared between atoms: covalent bonds, molecules
Nonpolar covalent bond: equal sharing of a pair of electrons between atoms
No electrical imbalance: O2, N2, H2

Polar covalent bond: unequal sharing of a pair of electrons

Charge imbalance leads to partially positive and negative poles on molecule: H2O

What is Electronegativity?
Electronegativity is a measure of how much specific atoms are able to attract electrons. The more electronegative an atom, the better it attracts electrons to itself Electronegativity depends on atom size and how full the outer shell is values range from 0.7 to 4.0

Table of electronegativity values

Fluorine (F) Oxygen (O) Chlorine (Cl) Nitrogen (N) Carbon (C) Sulfur (S) Hydrogen (H) Calcium (Ca) Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) 4.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.1 1.3 0.9 0.8

 Formation of a covalent bond Is this a polar or a nonpolar covalent bond?

Different covalent bonds

Nonpolar methane, polar water

Nonpolar molecules are electrically neutral

Polar molecules have partial positive and partial negative charges

Ionic Bonds
An electron is completely removed from one atom, transferred to another
Ionic compounds: NaCl Atom that lost electron: cation, positive charge Atom that gained electron: anion, negative charge Ionic compound has chemical properties different from those of the original elements

Ionic Bonding

Sodium, Chlorine and Sodium Chloride

Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen bonds form between
A hydrogen atom covalently bound to an electronegative atom
Hydrogen (2.1) bonded to oxygen (3.5) or nitrogen (3.0)

AND another electronegative atom on a different molecule, or a different part of a large molecule

Are the hydrogen atoms in ammonia (NH3) available for hydrogen bonding? What about the hydrogen atoms in methane (CH4)? Explain.

Hydrogen Bonds
Polar molecules form hydrogen bonds
Attraction between atoms with partial + or charges

Hydrogen bonds are weak

Formed and broken constantly

Hydrogen bonds between water molecules

Van der Waals Interactions

Very weak attractions between positive and negative areas of molecules
Even nonpolar molecules

Strength in numbers: VdW interactions coresponsible for molecular shapes and function

Van der Waals attractions allow geckos to walk up smooth walls (but they wont save you any money on car insurance)

DAILY RECORD / BIL BOWDEN

Chemical bonds determine molecular shapes

Water and the Fitness of the Environment

Chapter 3

Properties of Water
Polarity
Hydrogen bonds between water molecules
Too weak to attach molecules permanently in liquid water
Hydrogen bonds constantly made and broken Liquid water takes shape of any container

At 0 C, kinetic energy low enough

Hydrogen bonds keep water molecules in place Water freezes

Frozen water occupies larger volume than liquid water

Frozen water forms a layer on top of liquid water insulates and protects rest of water

Hydrogen bonds in water

One water molecule can form up to 4 hydrogen bonds with other water molecules

3 phases of water

Solid: hydrogen bonds rigid, molecules form lattice Liquid: hydrogen bonds form and break, molecules slide against each other, are closer to each other Gas: no hydrogen bonds, molecules farthest apart

Emergent Properties of Water

Cohesion, adhesion Ability to moderate temperature
High specific heat Evaporative cooling

Expansion when freezing Versatility as a solvent

Photograph by A. Gupta. Downloaded from Amazon.com

Cohesion and Adhesion

Surface tension
cohesion

Transport in plants
cohesion and adhesion

Cohesion and Adhesion

Transport in plants
cohesion and adhesion

Cohesion and Adhesion

Cohesion: water molecules sticking to each other Adhesion: water molecules sticking to their surroundings Both cohesion and adhesion are due to hydrogen bond formation

Cohesion and Adhesion in water: capillarity

Ability to Moderate Temperature

Water has high specific heat: It takes a lot of energy to change the temperature of water

Specific heat: # calories needed to heat one gram of a substance one degree Celsius In water, the specific heat is 1 cal/g/deg C

Specific heats of other substances

In units of calories/g/degree C
Air: 0.23 (at 20 degrees C) Aluminum: 0.22 Gold: 0.03 Ethyl Alcohol: 0.58 Glass: 0.20

How hot does the water get? Specific heat of stainless steel: 0.12 calories/g/degree C How hot does the pot get? Which gets hot faster, the water or the inside of the pot?

Heat and Temperature

Heat: total amount of kinetic energy of a substance
Depends on volume

Temperature: average amount of kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance

Independent of volume

Specific Heat, Volume and Temperature

The temperature of the oceans is relatively stable (compared to land temperatures) because the volume of the ocean is so great, and because water has such high specific heat.

 High heat of vaporization

Moderation of coastal temperatures

 high specific heat and climate modulation by oceans Average land temperatures vs. ocean temperatures

Lake Braddock Temps. Deg F Feb 2009

Date Feb 1 Feb 2 Feb 3 Feb 4 Feb 5 Feb 6 Feb 7 Feb 8 Feb 9 Feb 10 Feb 11

high 52 53 34 30 23 32 50 58 45 50 65

low 26 34 25 17 12 15 28 38 33 35 45

avg 39 44 30 24 18 24 39 48 39 42 55

Lake Braddock, Feb 11, 2009

Lake Braddock Temps. Deg F Feb 2009

Date Feb 1 Feb 2 Feb 3 Feb 4 Feb 5 Feb 6 Feb 7 Feb 8 Feb 9 Feb 10 Feb 11

high 52 53 34 30 23 32 50 58 45 50 65

low 26 34 25 17 12 15 28 38 33 35 45

avg 39 44 30 24 18 24 39 48 39 42 55

Same temperatures in Deg. C Date high low average Feb 1 11 -3 4 Feb 2 12 1 7 Feb 3 1 -4 -1 Feb 4 -1 -8 -4 Feb 5 -5 -11 -8 Feb 6 0 -9 -4 Feb 7 10 -2 4 Feb 8 14 3 9 Feb 9 7 1 4 Feb 10 10 2 6 Feb 11 18 7 13

Lake Braddock, Feb 11, 2009

Lake Braddock May 12, 2007

 Evaporative cooling
Sweating
As some of the sweat evaporates, the rest of it cools, and cools us off.

Expansion Upon Freezing

Frozen water: rigid lattice, less dense Liquid water: more compact, sliding movement

www.its.caltech.edu/ ~atomic/snowcrystals/

Shape of snowflakes

Upper Ice Layer Protects rest of Water from Freezing

 Animals and plants living under frozen water are protected from freezing

Versatility as a Solvent
Hydrogen bonds allow water to dissolve polar and ionic substances

Ionic, polar substances dissolve in water

Water sometimes Dissociates

H2O

OH- + H+

Acids and Bases

Water has equal concentrations of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-) Acids have a higher concentration of hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions
Acids tend to donate hydrogen ions

Bases have a higher concentration of hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions

Bases tend to accept hydrogen ions

pH scale
Logarithmic 0 to 14 pH = 10log [H+] The higher the pH, the lower the hydrogen ion concentration In water [H+] = [OH-]

pH Scale
With each decreasing pH unit, the concentration of hydrogen ions increases tenfold Example: The concentration of hydrogen ions in tomato juice (pH 4) is 10 times the concentration of hydrogen ions in black coffee (pH 5)

Exercise
Lemon juice has a pH of 2, tomato juice has a pH of 4 1) Which has the higher concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) ?
answer: lemon juice

2) What is the relationship between the two concentrations?

answer: Lemon juice has 100 X the concentration of hydrogen ions of tomato juice.

A hydrogen ion is a proton

A single hydrogen atom has a nucleus consisting of one proton, and one electron orbiting around this nucleus If hydrogen is ionized, it loses the electron, leaving a hydrogen ion, or a proton.

Buffers
Substances that minimize pH changes in solutions Have characteristics of both acids and bases Can donate protons to a base Can accept protons from an acid Help an organism maintain homeostasis

Buffering the Blood

Carbonic acid (H2CO3) responds to additions of base to the blood by dissociating into bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) and hydrogen ion (H+)
The H+ neutralizes the base

If acid is added to the blood, bicarbonate ion and hydrogen ion combine to form carbonic acid, removing hydrogen ions from the solution

bicarbonate

Response to drop in pH

Response to rise in pH

carbonic acid

Consequences of Acid Rain