Geology and Earth Resources

Geology in Todays World

Geology - The scientific study of the Earth
Physical Geology is the study of Earths materials, changes of the surface and interior of the Earth, and the forces that cause those changes

Practical Aspects of Geology

Natural resources Geological hazards Environmental protection

Practical Aspects of Geology

Natural Resources
All manufactured objects depend on Earths resources Localized concentrations of useful geological resources are mined or extracted If it cant be grown, it must be mined Most resources are limited in quantity and nonrenewable

Damage from Northridge (CA) earthquake (1/17/1994) apartment-15 died

Resource Extraction and Environmental Protection

Coal Mining
Careless mining can release acids into groundwater

Petroleum Resources
Removal, transportation and waste disposal can damage the environment

Alaska pipeline

Dwindling resources can encourage disregard for ecological damage caused by extraction activities

Physical Geology Concepts

Earths Systems
Atmosphere
the gases that envelop the Earth

Hydrosphere (rivers, ocean, glaciers, lakes)

water on or near the Earths surface all living or once-living materials the solid rocky Earth

Biosphere

Geosphere

Physical Geology Concepts

Earths Heat Engines
External (energy from the Sun)
Primary driver of atmospheric (weather) and hydrospheric circulation Controls weathering of rocks at Earths surface

Internal (heat moving from hot interior to cooler exterior)

Primary driver of most geospheric phenomena (volcanism, magmatism, tectonism)

Earths Interior
Compositional Layers
Crust (~3-70 km thick)
Very thin outer rocky shell of Earth
Continental crust - thicker and less
dense

Oceanic crust - thinner and more

dense

Mantle (~2900 km thick)

Hot solid that flows slowly over time; Fe-, Mg-, Si-rich minerals

Core (~3400 km radius)

Outer core - metallic liquid; mostly iron Inner core - metallic solid; mostly iron

Earths Interior
Mechanical Layers
Lithosphere (~100 km thick)
Rigid/brittle outer shell of Earth Composed of both crust and uppermost mantle Makes up Earths tectonic plates

Asthenosphere
Plastic (capable of flow) zone on which the lithosphere floats

Rocks and Minerals

Mineral: naturally occurring, inorganic, solid element or composed with a definite chemical composition and a regular internal crystal structure
Most fundamental characteristics: 1) Chemical Composition and 2) Crystal Structure No 2 Minerals are the same

Rock: solid, cohesive, aggregate of one or more minerals

No other planet in the solar system has the unique combination of fluids of Earth. Earth has a surface that is mostly covered with liquid water, water vapor in the atmosphere, and both frozen and liquid water on the land.

(A)The percentage by weight of the elements that make up Earth's crust. (B) The percentage by weight of the elements that make up the whole Earth.

Introduction
Minerals
A mineral is solid inorganic material of the Earth that has both a known chemical composition and a crystalline structure that is unique to that mineral

Rocks
A rock is a solid aggregate of one or more minerals that have been cohesively brought together by a rock-forming process.

Minerals
the building blocks of rocks
Mineral Characteristics
natural inorganic solid definite composition

crystal structure

Mineral Formation
4 major processes by which minerals form: 1. Crystallization from magmacooling magma causes minerals to crystallize

2. Precipitation
Minerals dissolve out of evaporated water; precipitated

3. Pressure and Temperature

Change in pressure and temperature cause an existing mineral to recrystallize while still solid

Muscovite

Talc

4. Hydrothermal Solutions
A hot mixtures of water with substances dissolved in them. When they come in contact with existing minerals- a chemical reaction occurs forming a new mineral
Bornite

Mineral Composition
Minerals are grouped or classified based on their composition. There are 6 groups

1. Carbonates - contain carbon, oxygen, and one ore more metallic element

2. Silicates
formed from silicon and oxygen elements combined to form a silicon tetrahedron, 1 silicon atom and 4 oxygen atoms formed from cooling magma either near the surface (few crystals) or deep below surface (larger crystals) -

3. Oxides
- Minerals

that contain oxygen and one or more other element(s)

- Minerals

4. Sulfates and Sulfides

containing sulfur

Gypsum

Pyrite

5. Halides
-minerals

Halite

containing halogen ions plus one or more other elements

6. Native Elements
Minerals that exist in a relatively pure form i.e. Gold, silver, copper
Gold crystal structure

Mineral Properties
Mineral PROPERTIES are used to identify minerals based on specific characteristics
Luster Streak Color Specific Gravity Cleavage & Fracture Hardness Magnetism Fluoresence

Luster
how light is reflected from the surface of a mineral

Cleavage- tendency to break along flat, even surfaces (mica) Fracture- uneven breakage (quartz)

Specific Gravity- ratio of a minerals density to the density of water

Density= Mass (g) Volume (mL or cm3)

Density of water is 1 g/cm3

Specific Gravity is a ratio, no units

Hardness- measure of resistance of a mineral being scratched

Magnetism
Magnetite

Fluorescence

Double Refraction Calcite

Smell Sulfur

The Rock Cycle

Rocks- any solid mass of mineral or mineral-like matter that occurs naturally as part of our planet
There are 3 major type or families or rock:
Igneous rocks Sedimentary rocks Metamorphic rocks

Igneous Rocks
Magma- molten material underground
Lava- magma that reaches the surface Igneous rocks are formed from magma that has cooled and hardened either beneath the surface or from a volcanic eruption

2 Ways to Form Igneous Rock

Intrusive Igneous Rocksform when magma hardens beneath Earths surface Extrusive Igneous Rocksform when lava hardens on the surface of the Earth Extruded onto the surface Magma intrudes into existing rocks

rhyolite
granite

Magma contains some gases, including water vaporthis make it less dense, so it rises
As magma rises, it cools and forms crystals

The longer the cooling time the larger the crystals

Classification of Igneous Rocks- Igneous rocks are classified

by texture and composition
Texture refers to the appearance of an igneous rock (size, shape, arrangement of crystals) Composition refers to the proportions of light and dark minerals in the rock

Coarse- grained Texture- form as a result of slow cooling, ions can move = large crystal size Fine-grained Texture- form as a result of quick cooling time, ions lose motion= small crystal size

Glassy Texture- form from lava that cools rapidly, ions dont have time to arrange = glassy texture
Porphyritic Texture- rocks with different size minerals that form from varying cooling rates

Granitic Composition- contain mainly quartz and feldspar, some with biotite mica and amphibole. Make up major rocks of continental crust Basaltic Composition- contain mainly dark colored minerals and feldspar, along with Mg and Fe. Darker and denser than granitic composition

Sedimentary Rocksformed from compacted and cemented sediments

Weathering physically and chemically breaks rocks into small pieces called sediments

Sediments are moved

by wind, water, ice, and gravity Eventually, they are dropped and form layers that are cemented together

Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition

Weathering breaks rocks down Erosion involves weather and the removal of rock Deposition is the dropping of sediments Sediments are deposited according to size

Compaction and Cementation

Compaction is the process that squeezes the water out of the sediments. It is caused by the weight of the sediments. Cementation takes place when dissolved minerals are deposited in the tiny spaces among the sediments.

Cementing holds the sediments together.

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks- based

on formation
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks are formed from weathered bits of rocks and minerals Grouped according to size of the sediments in the rock Chemical Sedimentary Rocks are formed when dissolved minerals precipitate from water solution

Coquina limestone

Sedimentary rocks hold many clues to the Earths history

Layers of sediments are records of geologic events on Earth

Fossils are unique to sedimentary rocks

Metamorphic Rocksform when existing rocks undergo change through heat and pressure
Metamorphism means to change Most metamorphic changes occur at high temperatures and pressure These occur deep below the Earths surface and extend into the mantle

Forms of Metamorphism
Contact Metamorphismforms when magma intrudes into existing rock Changes in rocks are minor Major changes to rocks Regional Metamorphismformed during mountain building process that occur over a large area

Contact metamorphism

Regional metamorphism

Agents of Metamorphism
Heat- causes existing minerals to recrystallize or new minerals to form Pressure- causes the spaces between mineral grains to close= more compact rock= greater density

Classification of Metamorphic Rocks- based

on texture and composition
Foliated Metamorphic Rocksform when minerals recrystallize at right angles to the direction of force Causes a layered or banded appearance

Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks- no banded texture

Most contain only one mineral

Foliated

NonFoliated

IGNEOUS ROCK

SEDIMENTARY ROCK

METAMORPHIC ROCK

Metals & Nonmetals

Metals consumed in greatest quantity: iron, aluminum, manganese, copper and chromiumproduced mainly in mountainous areas
Nonmetals (covers silicate minerals to sand, gravel, salts, etc.): durable, highly valuable, and easily portable
i.e. Gemstones Sand and gravel production comprise by far the greatest volume and dollar value of all nonmetal mineral resources.

Environmental Effects of Resource Extraction

Mining and purifying all of the mineral resources can have severe environmental and social consequences
Can affect water quality: i.e. sulfuric acid is produced when gold and other metals are mined from sulfide ores- DANGEROUS Chemical substances can contaminate lakes and streams

Mining
Placer mining- washing out metals deposited in the gravel of streambeds (i.e. gold) destroys streambeds but fills the water with suspended solids that smother aquatic life
Other types of mining: open-pit mining, strip mining, and underground mining

Risk of fires: inaccessibility and size of the fires make many impossible to extinguish and control Toxic Soup in metal mines can leak into lakes and endanger wildlife- 12,000 miles of rivers and streams in the U.S. are contaminated by mine drainage 1997 federal Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act requires better restoration of strip-mined lands; but restoration is difficult because it is expensive

Processing Ores
Metals are extracted from ores by heating or with chemical solvents- releases large quantities of toxic materials
Smelting: roasting ore to release metals; major source of air pollution Heap-Leach Extraction: piling crushed ore in huge heaps and spraying it with a dilute akaline-cyanide solution; large water pollutant

Conserving Geologic Resources

Recycling
Metals are easily recyclable and require much less energy than extracting new metals (i.e. Aluminum)

New materials can be substituted for old Using iron and steel replaced by polymers, aluminum, etc.

Geologic Hazards
Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, and landslides and other catastrophic events, though rare, have shaped the earth significantly

Earthquakes can be very destructive

Earthquakes are sudden movements in the earths crust that occur along faults where one rock mass slides past another one
Mysterious, sudden, and violent Worst death toll occurs in cities with poorly constructed buildings Most seismically active region in the U.S. is along the west coast where tectonic plates are colliding

Tsunamis are giant seismic sea swells generated from the center of an earthquake. They are incredibly destructive to coastal areas.

Volcanoes
Volcanoes and undersea magma vents produce much of the earths crust but release large volumes of ash and dust into the air can block sunlight Ring of Fire- seismic activity and active volcanoes around the edge of the Pacific Ocean More than 500 million people live in the danger zone around volcanoes Nuees ardentes (glowing clouds) are deadly, denser than air mixtures of hot gases and ash like those that inundated Pompeii Mudslides are also dangerous

Landslides
Mass wasting: geological materials are moved down slope from one place to another
i.e. Rockslides and avalanches Over $1 billion in property damage is done every year by landslides in the U.S.

Many human activities such as road construction and forest clearing increase the frequency and damage done by landslides