Research Process, Research Design and Questionnaires

RESEARCH PROCESS Identify and Define Research Problem

Theory / Practice Hypotheses / Conceptualization Research Design

Data collection
In this workshop we talk about all of the steps in the research process except Data Analysis and Findings.

Data Analysis Findings

RESEARCH PROCESS Research Problem

What is a problem?
. . . any situation where a gap exists between the actual and the desired state. A problem does not necessarily mean that something is seriously wrong. It could simply indicate an interest in improving an existing situation. Thus, problem definitions can include both existing problems in the current situation as well as the quest for idealistic states in the future.

RESEARCH PROCESS Problem Identification

How are problems identified?

1. Observation manager/researcher senses that changes are occurring, or that some new behaviors, attitudes, feelings, communication patterns, etc., are surfacing in ones environment. The manager may not understand exactly what is happening, but can definitely sense that things are not what they should be.

2. Preliminary Data Collection use of interviews, both unstructured and structured, to get an idea or feel for what is happening in the situation.
3. Literature Survey a comprehensive review of the published and unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the areas related to the problem.

RESEARCH PROCESS Problem Identification

A literature survey ensures that:

1. Important variables likely to influence the problem are not left out of the study. 2. A clearer idea emerges regarding what variables are most important to consider, why they are important, and how they should be investigated. 3. The problem is more accurately and precisely defined. 4. The interviews cover all important topics. 5. The research hypotheses are testable. 6. The research can be replicated. 7. One does not reinvent the wheel; that is, time is not wasted trying to rediscover something that is already known. 8. The problem to be investigated is perceived by the scientific community as relevant and significant.

RESEARCH PROCESS Problem Identification Typical Business Research Problems:

1. 2. 3. Training programs are not as effective as anticipated. Sales volume of products/services is not increasing. Balancing of accounting ledgers is becoming increasingly difficult. 4. The newly installed information system is not being used by the employees for whom it was designed. 5. Introduction of flexible work hours has created more problems than it has solved. 6. Anticipated results of a recent merger/acquisition have not been realized. 7. Inventory control systems are not effective. 8. Frequent interruptions in production. 9. Low employee morale. 10. Frequent customer complaints. 11. Installation of an MIS keeps getting delayed. 12. Ad campaign is not generating new sales prospects.

RESEARCH PROCESS Problem Identification

What are some business problems you are aware of or have confronted?

RESEARCH PROCESS Problem Definition

Problem Definition Steps:

Understand and define the complete problem. If more

than one problem is identified, separate and prioritize them in terms of who and when they will be dealt with. Identify and separate out measurable symptoms to determine root problem versus easily observable symptoms. For example, a manager may identify declining sales or lost market share as the problem, but the real problem may be bad advertising, low salesperson morale, or ineffective distribution. Similarly, low productivity may be a symptom of employee morale or motivation problems, or supervisor issues. Determine the unit of analysis = individuals, households, businesses, objects (e.g., products, stores), geographic areas, etc., or some combination. Determine the relevant variables, including specifying independent and dependent relationships, constructs, etc.

RESEARCH PROCESS Problem Definition

Examples of Well-Defined problems:
1. Has the new packaging affected the sales of the product? 2. How do price and quality rate on consumers evaluation of products? 3. Is the effect of participative budgeting on performance moderated by control systems? 4. Does better automation lead to greater asset investment per dollar of output? 5. Has the new advertising message resulted in higher recall? 6. To what extent do the organizational structure and type of information systems account for the variance in the perceived effectiveness of managerial decision-making? 7. Will expansion of international operations result in an improvement in the firms image and value? 8. What are the effects of downsizing on the long-range growth patterns of companies? 9. What are the components of quality of life? 10.What are the specific factors to be considered in creating a data warehouse for a manufacturing company?

RESEARCH PROCESS Definitions

Variable = the observable and measurable characteristics/attributes the researcher specifies, studies, and draws conclusions about.

Types of Variables:

Independent variable = also called a predictor variable, it is a variable or

construct that influences or explains the dependent variable either in a positive or negative way. construct the researcher hopes to understand, explain and/or predict.

Dependent variable = also known as a criterion variable, it is a variable or Moderator variable = a variable that has an effect on the independent
dependent variable relationship. The presence of a moderator variable modifies the original relationship between the independent and dependent variables by interacting with the independent variable to influence the strength of the relationship with the dependent variable. that surfaces as a function of the independent variable and explains the relationship between the dependent and independent variables. Moderator variables specify when certain effects will occur whereas mediators speak to how or why such effects occur. Moreover, mediators explain how external events take on internal psychological significance.

Mediating variable = also known as an intervening variable, it is a variable

RESEARCH PROCESS Definitions continued . . .

Measurement = is the process of determining the direction and intensity of feelings about persons, events, concepts, ideas, and/or objects of interest that are defined as being part of the business problem. As part of measurement, researchers use predetermined rules to assign numbers or labels to: (1) individuals attitudes, behaviors, characteristics, etc.; (2) objects features or attributes; and (3) any other phenomenon or event being investigated. Rules tell researchers how to assign numbers or labels; e.g., assign the numbers 1 to 7 to responses based on the intensity of an individuals feelings, beliefs, etc.

Measurement involves two processes: (1) identification/development of constructs; and (2) scale measurement. The first process involves identifying and defining what is to be measured, while the second process involves selecting the scale to measure the construct(s).
Construct = also referred to as a concept, it is a abstract idea formed in the mind based on a set of facts or observations. The idea is a combination of a number of similar characteristics of the construct. Examples of constructs include: brand awareness, brand familiarity, purchase intentions, satisfaction, importance, trust, service quality, role ambiguity, etc. Scale measurement = using a set of symbols or numbers to represent the range of possible responses to a research question.

RESEARCH PROCESS Constructs

Examples of Constructs Investigated in Marketing:

Constructs Brand Awareness

Brand Attitudes

Purchase Intentions

Importance of Factors Psychographics

Satisfaction

Operational Description Percentage of respondents that have heard of a designated brand; awareness could be either unaided or aided. The number of respondents and their intensity of feeling positive or negative toward a specific brand. The number of people planning to buy the specified object (e.g., product or service) within a designated time period. To what extent do specific factors influence a person's purchase choice. The attitudes, opinions, interests and lifestyle characteristics of individuals providing the information. How people evaluate their post-purchase consumption experience with a particular product, service or company.

Role Ambiguity Construct

Conceptual/theoretical definition = the difference between the information available to the person (actual knowledge) and that which is required for adequate performance of a role. Operational definition = the amount of uncertainty an individual feels regarding job role responsibilities and expectations from supervisors, other employees and customers. Measurement scale = consists of 45 items assessed using a 5-point scale, with category labels 1 = very certain, 2 = certain, 3 = neutral, 4 = uncertain, and 5 = very uncertain. Examples of items:
How much freedom of action I am expected to have. How I am expected to handle non-routine activities on the job. The sheer amount of work I am expected to do. To what extent my boss is open to hearing my point of view. How satisfied my boss is with me. How I am expected to interact with my customers.
Source: Singh & Rhoads, JMR, August 1991, p. 328.

Service Quality Construct

Conceptual/theoretical definition = the difference between an individuals expectations of service and their actual experiences. Operational definition = how individuals react to their actual service experience with a company relative to their expectations that a company will possess certain service characteristics. Measurement scale = consists of 82 items assessed using a 7-point scale, with category labels 1 = not at all essential to 7 = absolutely essential. Examples of items:
Employees of excellent companies will give prompt service to customers. Excellent companies will have the customers best interests at heart. Excellent companies will perform services right the first time. Employees of excellent companies will never be too busy to respond to customer requests. Excellent companies will give customers individual attention. Materials associated with products and services of excellent companies (such as pamphlets or statements) will be visually appealing .
Source: Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry, JM, Fall 1985, p. 44.

RESEARCH PROCESS Identify and Define Research Problem

Theory / Practice Hypotheses / Conceptualization Research Design

Data collection Data Analysis Findings

RESEARCH PROCESS Theory/Practice

What is theory ??

RESEARCH PROCESS Theory/Practice

Theory = a systematic set of relationships providing a consistent and comprehensive explanation of a phenomenon. In practice, a theory is a researchers attempt to specify the entire set of dependence relationships explaining a particular set of outcomes.

Theory is based on prior empirical research, past experiences and observations of behavior, attitudes, or other phenomena, and other theories that provide a perspective for developing possible relationships.
Theory is used to prepare a theoretical framework for the research.

RESEARCH PROCESS Identify and Define Research Problem

Theory / Practice Hypotheses / Conceptualization Research Design

Data collection Data Analysis Findings

RESEARCH PROCESS Hypotheses

Hypotheses = preconceptions the researcher develops regarding the relationships represented in the data, typically based on theory, practice or previous research. Examples:
The average number of cups of coffee students drink during finals will be greater than the average they consume at other times. Younger, part-time employees of Samouels restaurant are more likely to search for a new job.

RESEARCH PROCESS Theoretical Framework

Theoretical Framework = a written description that includes a conceptual model. It integrates all the information about the problem in a logical manner, describes the relationships among the variables, explains the theory underlying these relationships, and indicates the nature and direction of the relationships. The process of developing a theoretical framework involves conceptualization which is a visual specification (conceptual model) of the theoretical basis of the relationships you would like to examine.

RESEARCH PROCESS Theory/Practice

Basic Features of a Good Theoretical Framework:

1. The variables/constructs considered relevant to the study are clearly identified and labeled. 2. The discussion states how the variables/constructs are related to each other, e.g., dependent, independent, moderator, etc. 3. If possible, the nature (positive or negative) of the relationships as well as the direction is hypothesized on the basis of theory, previous research or researcher judgment. 4. There is a clear explanation of why you expect these relationships to exist. 5. A visual (schematic) diagram of the theoretical framework is prepared to clearly illustrate the hypothesized relationships.

RESEARCH PROCESS Conceptual Models

Price

Purchase Likelihood Dependent Variable

Independent Variable

Moderator Variable

Discount Level Restrictions

Price Independent Variable

Purchase Likelihood Dependent Variable

RESEARCH PROCESS Conceptual Models

Mediator Variable (full mediation) Perceived Value Purchase Likelihood

Price

Mediator Variable (partial mediation) Perceived Value

Price Independent Variable

Purchase Likelihood Dependent Variable

Theoretical Framework Conceptualization

Group Exercise: Use the Samouels and Ginos restaurant database variables to develop a theoretical framework/conceptual model of the relationships that could be examined. Consider and evaluate several models, but be prepared to report your most interesting or thought provoking model.

Conceptual Models Samouels Employee Database

Supervision

Work Groups

Employee Commitment

Compensation Supervision

Work Groups

Intention to Search

Compensation

Potential Hypotheses: Commitment is positively related to supervision, work groups and compensation. Intention to Search is negatively related to supervision, work groups & compensation.

Description of Customer Survey Variables

Variable Description Restaurant Perceptions
X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10 X11 X12 X13 X14 X15 X16 X17 X18 X19 X20 X21 X22 X23 X24 X25 X26 X27 X28 Excellent Food Quality Attractive Interior Generous Portions Excellent Food Taste Good Value for the Money Friendly Employees Appears Clean & Neat Fun Place to Go Wide Variety of menu Items Reasonable Prices Courteous Employees Competent Employees Food Quality Atmosphere Prices Employees Satisfaction Likely to Return in Future Recommend to Friend Frequency of Patronage Length of Time a Customer Gender Age Income Competitor Which AD Viewed (#1, 2 or 3) AD Rating Respondents that Viewed Ads

Variable Type
Metric Metric Metric Metric Metric Metric Metric Metric Metric Metric Metric Metric Nonmetric Nonmetric Nonmetric Nonmetric Metric Metric Metric Nonmetric Nonmetric Nonmetric Nonmetric Nonmetric Nonmetric Nonmetric Metric Nonmetric

Selection Factor Rankings

Relationship Variables

Classification Variables

Description of Employee Survey Variables

Variable Description Variable Type Work Environment Measures X1 I am paid fairly for the work I do. Metric X2 I am doing the kind of work I want. Metric X3 My supervisor gives credit an praise for work well done. Metric X4 There is a lot of cooperation among the members of my work group. Metric X5 My job allows me to learn new skills. Metric X6 My supervisor recognizes my potential. Metric X7 My work gives me a sense of accomplishment. Metric X8 My immediate work group functions as a team. Metric X9 My pay reflects the effort I put into doing my work. Metric X10 My supervisor is friendly and helpful. Metric X11 The members of my work group have the skills and/or training to do their job well. Metric X12 The benefits I receive are reasonable. Metric Relationship Measures X13 Loyalty I have a sense of loyalty to Samouels restaurant. Metric X14 Effort I am willing to put in a great deal of effort beyond that expected to help Samouels restaurant to be successful. Metric X15 Proud I am proud to tell others that I work for Samouels restaurant. Metric Classification Variables X16 Intention to Search Metric X17 Length of Time an Employee Nonmetric X18 Work Type = Part-Time vs. Full-Time Nonmetric X19 Gender Nonmetric X20 Age Nonmetric X21 Performance Metric

RESEARCH PROCESS Identify and Define Research Problem

Theory / Practice Hypotheses / Conceptualization Research Design

Data collection Data Analysis Findings

RESEARCH DESIGN Types

Research Design Alternatives Purpose:

(1) Exploratory to formulate the problem, develop hypotheses, identify constructs, establish priorities for research, refine ideas, clarify concepts, etc. Descriptive to describe characteristics of certain groups, estimate proportion of people in a population who behave in a given way, and to make directional predictions. Causal to provide evidence of the relationships between variables, the sequence in which events occur, and/or to eliminate other possible explanations.

(2)

(3)

Research Design Approaches

Two Broad Approaches:

1. Qualitative. 2. Quantitative.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Role of Qualitative Research:
Search of academic, trade and professional

literature (both traditional & Internet). Use of interviews, brainstorming, focus groups. Internalization of how others have undertaken both qualitative and quantitative research. Use of existing questionnaires/constructs.

Outcome of Qualitative Research:

Improve conceptualization. Clarify research design, including data collection

approach. Draft questionnaire.

RESEARCH DESIGN

Role of Quantitative Research:

Quantify data and generalize results from

sample to population. Facilitates examination of large number of representative cases. Structured approach to data collection. Enables extensive statistical analysis.

Outcome of Quantitative Research:

Validation of qualitative research findings. Confirmation of hypotheses, theories, etc. Recommend final course of action.

RESEARCH PROCESS Identify and Define Research Problem

Theory / Practice Hypotheses / Conceptualization Research Design

Data collection Data Analysis Findings

DATA COLLECTION

Approaches:
Observation

Human Mechanical/Electronic Devices

Surveys

Self-Completion Mail/Overnight Delivery/Fax Electronic Interviewer-Administered Face-to-Face Home, Work, Mall, Focus Groups Telephone

DATA COLLECTION

Selection of data collection approach?

Budget Knowledge of issues qualitative vs. quantitative Respondent Participation Taste Test; Ad Test Card Sorts; Visual Scaling Time Available

DATA COLLECTION

Types of Data:

Primary Secondary

PRIMARY DATA

Primary Data Sources:

Informal discussions; brainstorming Focus groups Observational Methods Structured & Unstructured Surveys Experiments

Primary Data Focus Groups

Focus Groups = bring a small group of people (10-12) together for an interactive, spontaneous discussion of a particular topic or concept. Discussion is led by a trained moderator and usually lasts 1 hours. Typical Objectives:
To identify and define problems. To generate new ideas about products, services, delivery methods, etc. To test advertising themes, positioning statements, company and product names, etc. To discover new constructs and measurement methods. To understand customer needs, wants, attitudes, behaviors, preferences and motives.

Primary Data

Factors Influencing Overall Mobile Phone Satisfaction 2003 2002

These factors typically are identified in qualitative focus groups (exploratory research).

Features Durability Physical Design Battery Function Operation

27% 23% 19% 16% 15%

21% 16% 28% 16% 19%

These percentages typically are determined in quantitative surveys (descriptive research).

2004 Wireless Retail Sales Satisfaction Study Sales Staff 44% Price/Promotion 28% Store Display 14% Store Facility 14%
Source: J.D. Power and Associates, 2002, 2003 & 2004.

Primary Data

Hotel Selection Factors:

1. Location 2. Past Experience 3. Recommendations or Friends and Family 4. Brand Reputation

Guest Satisfaction Factors:

1. Guest Room 2. Departure Process 3. Pre-Arrival/Arrival Experiences 4. Hotel Services 5. Food & Beverage services
Note: the first three factors account for more than 70 percent of guest satisfaction ratings. Source: J.D. Power & Associates, August 21, 2001.

Primary Data

What is the construct in this study?

Original Equipment Tire Satisfaction Study:

1. Product Quality - Number of tires with a problem - Number of problems experienced - Number of original tires replaced 2. Long-Term Performance - Wear ability - Length of warranty - Overall reliability & dependability - Freedom from pull to left or right 3. Situational Performance - Traction on wet roads - Traction at fast starts - Holds road well in emergencies - Lack of vibration at highway speeds - Overall safety - Overall ride at highway speeds 4. Design - Road quietness - Style & appearance of sidewalls - Tread design - Size of tire matches size of vehicle 5. Winter Traction Source: J.D. Power & Associates, August 27, 2001. 39%

22%

19%

14%

5%

PRIMARY DATA Focus Groups Focus Groups:

Some of my best experiences?

Some of my worst experiences?

PRIMARY DATA Observations

CONSIDERATIONS:

Methods human/mechanical/electronic. Useful where respondent cannot or will not

articulate the answer.

Cannot be used to measure thoughts, feelings,

attitudes, opinions, etc.

PRIMARY DATA QUESTIONNAIRES

Purpose of Questionnaires:
To obtain information that cannot be easily

observed or is not already available in written or electronic form. concepts/constructs.

Questionnaires enable researchers to measure

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Steps in Questionnaire Design:
1. Initial Considerations problem, objectives, target population, sampling, etc. 2. Clarification of Concepts select variables, constructs, measurement approach, etc. 3. Developing the Questionnaire
Length and sequence. Types of questions. Sources of questions.

Wording, coding, layout and instructions.

4. Pre-testing the Questionnaire. 5. Questionnaire Administration Planning.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Two Types of Questions: 1. Open-ended 2. Closed-ended

Open-ended Questions = place no constraints on respondents; i.e., they are free to answer in their own words and to give whatever thoughts come to mind.
Closed-ended Questions = respondent is given the option of choosing from a number of predetermined answers.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Examples of Open-ended Questions: How do you typically decide which restaurant you will
eat at?

Which mutual funds have you been investing in for the

past year?

How are your investment funds performing?

Do you think airport security is better now than it

was six months ago?

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Open-ended Questions

Typically used in exploratory/qualitative studies. Typically used in personal interview surveys involving

small samples. Allows respondent freedom of response. Respondent must be articulate and willing to spend time giving a full answer. Data is in narrative form which can be time consuming and difficult to code and analyze. Possible researcher bias in interpretation. Narrative is analyzed using of content analysis. Software is available (e.g., NUD*IST).

Content Analysis Software:

TextSmart is a software package that enables users to view, manipulate and automate the coding or categorization of responses to narative data. The ability to automate the examination and organization of narrative data is particularly helpful when a large scale survey is undertaken. It can be used to analyze any textual data, and its output can be exported to SPSS for further analysis. For example, you can do correspondence analysis* on a contingency table from a TextSmart analysis. For more information about TextSmart and related SPSS products visit the WWW site www.spss.com.

QSR NUD*IST stands for Non-Numerical Unstructured Data Indexing and Theorizing. It is a popular computer software package used by researchers to analyze text from focus group or interview transcripts, literary documents and so on. It examines non-textual data such as photographs, tape recordings, films and so on. Users can us it to index and link several documents in a structured way to produce categorical data in a form amenable to further analysis. NUD*IST output can be exported to software programs such as SPSS and Excel. For more information about QSR NUD*IST and its related product NVIVO visit their website (http://www.scolari.co.uk/qsr/qsr_n4.htm).

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Closed-end Questions:

Single Answer Multiple Answer Rank Order Numeric Likert-Type Scales Semantic Differential

Examples of Closed-end Questions:

1. 2. 3.
Did you check your email this morning? __ Yes __ No Do you believe Enron senior executives should be put in jail? __ Yes __ No Should the U.K. adopt the Euro or keep the Pound? __ Adopt the Euro __ Keep the Pound Which countries in Europe have you traveled to in the last six months? __ Belgium __ Germany __ France __ Holland __ Italy __ Switzerland __ Spain __ Other (please specify) _____________ How often do you eat at Samouels Greek Cuisine restaurant? __ Never __ 1 4 times per year __ 5 8 times per year __ 9 12 times per year __ More than 12 times per year

4.

5.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Closed-end Questions

Typically used in quantitative studies. Assumption is researcher has knowledge to pre-specify

response categories. Data can be pre-coded and therefore in a form amenable for use with statistical packages (e.g., SPSS, SAS) data capture therefore easier. More difficult to design but simplifies analysis. Used in studies involving large samples. Limited range of response options.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Broad Considerations

Sequencing of questions. Identification of concepts. How many questions are required to capture

each concept. Question wording. Overall length of questionnaire. Placing of sensitive questions. Ability of respondents. Level of measurement. Open-ended versus closed-end questions.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Questionnaire Sequence
Opening Questions Research Topic Questions Classification Questions

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN Opening Questions

Screening or Filter Questions:

. . . are used to ensure respondents included in the study are those that meet the pre-determined criteria of the target population.

Tonight we are talking with individuals who are 18 years of age or older and have 50 percent or more of the responsibility for banking decisions in your household. Are you that person? __ Yes __ No

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN Opening Questions

Rapport Questions:
. . . are used to establish rapport with the respondent by gaining their attention and stimulating their interest in the topic.

Have you seen any good movies in the last month?

__ Yes __ No

What is your favorite seafood restaurant?

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN Research Topic Questions

Concept/construct = an abstract idea formed in the mind. The idea is a combination of a number of similar characteristics/variables that collectively define the concept and are used to measure it. Constructs are abstract/intangible and cannot be directly observed or measured because they are the mental images a person attaches to an object, such as attitudes, feelings, perceptions, expectations, or expressions of future actions (e.g., purchase intentions). Example Concept:

Customer Service issues for a B-to-B situation

Reliable delivery Technical sales Support Inside sales representatives Field sales representatives Complaint resolution Ordering/Invoicing Website design

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Concepts
Concept Identification Conceptual definition e.g., Service Quality. As perceived by customers, it is the difference between customers expectations or desires of a vendor and their perceptions of the actual situation (their experiences).

Working Definition for Concept Decompose definition into components. Search for items that are measurable.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Service Quality Construct:

Research has shown the service quality construct can be indirectly represented by the following measurable components:

The service providers ability to . . . .

communicate and listen to consumers; sincerely empathize with customers in interpreting their needs
and wants; problems;

be tactful in responding to customers questions, objections, and create an impression of reliability in performing services; create an image of credibility by keeping promises; demonstrate sufficient technical knowledge and competence;

exhibit strong interpersonal skills in dealing with customers.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Concept Development Exercise:

Concept = Restaurant Service Quality 1. What are the components of service quality as they relate to a restaurant? 2. How do you measure these components?

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Preparing Good Questions:

Use Simple Words. Be brief. Avoid Ambiguity. Avoid Leading Questions. Avoid Double-Barreled Questions. Check Questionnaire Layout. Prepare Clear Instructions. Watch Question Sequence.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Recently a survey was conducted by the United Nations using a sample from several different countries. The question asked was: " Would you please give your opinion about the food shortage in the rest of the world?" The survey was a huge failure. Why?

In Africa they did not know what 'food' meant. In Western Europe, they did not know what 'shortage' meant. In Eastern Europe they did not know what 'opinion' meant. In South America they did not know what 'please' meant. And in the U.S., they did not know what 'the rest of the
world' meant.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Avoid Position Bias:
Position Bias: How important are flexible hours in evaluating job alternatives? What factors are important in evaluating job alternatives? No Position Bias: What factors are important in evaluating job alternatives? How important are flexible hours in evaluating job alternatives?

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Double-Barreled Questions:
To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements?

Harrods employees are friendly and helpful. Harrods employees are courteous and knowledgeable.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Branching Questions:
. . . are used to direct respondents to answer the right questions as well as questions in the proper sequence.

Have you seen or heard any advertisements for wireless

telephone service in the past 30 days? If No, go to question #10. If Yes , were the advertisements on radio or TV or both? If the advertisements were on TV or on both radio and TV, then go to question #6? If the advertisements were on radio, then go to question #8.

Following questions #6 and #8 the next question would be:

Were any of the advertisements for Sprint PCS?

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Issues Self-Completion Instructions:

Introducing and explaining how to answer a series of

questions on a particular topic. Transition statements from one section (topic) of the questionnaire to another. Which question to go to next (branching or skipping). How many answers are acceptable, e.g., Check only one response or Check as many as apply. Whether respondents are supposed to answer the question by themselves, or can consult another person or reference materials. What to do when the questionnaire is completed, e.g., When finished, place this in the postage paid envelope and mail it.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Issues Interviewer-Assisted Instructions:

How to increase respondent participation. How to screen out respondents that are not wanted and
still keep them happy. What to say when respondents ask how to answer a particular question. When concepts may not be easily understood, how to define them. When answer alternatives are to be read to respondents (aided response) or not to be read (unaided response). How to follow branching or skip patterns. When and how to probe. How to end the interview.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Identify response bias for below questions:
1. Do you advocate a lower speed limit to save human lives?

2.
3. 4.

When you visited the museum, how many times did you read the plaques that explain what the exhibit contained?
About what time do you ordinarily eat dinner? How important is it for stores to carry a large variety of different brands of this product?

5.
6. 7.

Would you favor increasing taxes to cope with the current fiscal crisis?
Dont you see some danger in the new policy? What small appliance, such as countertop appliances, have you purchased in the past month?

8.
9.

When you buy fast food, what percentage of the time do you order each of the following types of food?
Do you like orange juice?

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Comments on Questions:
1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

A loaded question because everyone wants to save lives. Also, it presumes that lower speed limits saves lives. Too specific because respondents likely cannot remember the exact number of times. Ambiguous because dont know if dinner is lunch or evening. Not specific enough about types of stores. Overemphasis because refers to crisis. Leading question because uses danger in sentence. Answers likely to relate only to countertop appliances and not all small appliances. Over generalization because does not specify time period. Ambiguous because may like orange juice for themselves, or for their kids, but really do not know.

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
Pre-testing Questionnaires:

Objective: to identify possible shortcomings of questionnaire. Approaches informal or formal. Can assess:

clarity of instructions cover letter clarity of questions adequacy of codes and categories for pre-coded questions quality of responses likely response rate

ability to perform meaningful analyses time to complete the questionnaire cost of data collection which questions are relevant whether key questions have been overlooked sources of bias

No hard and fast rules.

Scale Development

Scales = the approach used to measure concepts (constructs).

Two Options: 1. Use published scales. 2. Develop original scales.

Sources of Published Scales

Organizational Behavior and Management Price, James L., Handbook of Organizational Measurement, International Journal of Manpower, Vol. 18, Number 4/5/6, 1997, ISSN 0143-7720, www.mcb.co.uk Has 28 chapters with constructs measuring organizational behavior. Management Information Systems (MIS) www.ucalgary.ca/~newsted/surveys.html. www.misq.org/archivist/home.html.

Marketing Bearden, William O. and Richard Netemeyer, Handbook of Marketing Scales, Sage Publications, 2nd ed., 1998. Summarizes over 130 marketing related scales.
Bruner, Gordon Paul Hensel, Marketing Scales Handbook, Chicago, Ill., American Marketing Association, 1992. Includes almost 600 scales. General Robinson, John P., Phillip R. Shaver and Lawrence S. Wrightsman, Measures of Personal and Social Psychological Attitudes, San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1991. Contains over 150 published scales in 11 different areas. Buros Institute of Mental Measurements website has reviews of published tests and measurements. www.unl.edu/buros

Online Questionnaire Design

Decision Analyst

www.decisionanalyst.com
Decisive Technology

Survey Builder
www.surveybuilder.com

www.decisive.com

SurveyPro
www.surveypro.com

Perseus Development

www.perseusdevelopment.com
Socratic Technologies

SurveySez
www.surveysez.com

WebSurveyor
www.websurveyor.com

www.sotech.com
SPSS

www.spss.com

MEASUREMENT SCALES
Types of Scales:

Metric (interval & ratio) Likert-type Summated-Ratings (Likert) Numerical Semantic Differential Graphic-Ratings Nonmetric (nominal & ordinal) Categorical Constant Sum Method Paired Comparisons Rank Order Sorting

MEASUREMENT SCALES Metric

Examples of Likert-Type Scales: When I hear about a new restaurant , I eat there to see what it is like.
Strongly Agree Agree Somewhat 1 2 Neither Agree or Disagree 3 Disagree Somewhat 4 Strongly Disagree 5

When I hear about a new restaurant , I eat there to see what it is like.

Strongly Agree 1

Strongly Disagree 5

MEASUREMENT SCALES Metric

Summated Ratings Scales:
A scaling technique in which respondents are asked to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement with each of a number of statements. A subjects attitude score (summated rating) is the total obtained by summing over the items in the scale and dividing by the number of items to get the average.

Example:
My sales representative is . . . . SD D Courteous ___ ___ Friendly ___ ___ Helpful ___ ___ Knowledgeable ___ ___ N ___ ___ ___ ___ A ___ ___ ___ ___ SA ___ ___ ___ ___

MEASUREMENT SCALES Metric

Alternative Approach to Summated Ratings scales: When I hear about a new restaurant , I eat there to see what it is like. Strongly Agree 1 Agree Somewhat 2 Neither Agree or Disagree 3 Disagree Somewhat 4 Strongly Disagree 5

I always eat at new restaurants when someone tells me they are good.
Strongly Agree 1 Agree Somewhat 2 Neither Agree or Disagree 3 Disagree Somewhat 4 Strongly Disagree 5

This approach includes a separate labeled Likert scale with each item (statement). The summated rating is a total of the responses for all the items divided by the number of items.

MEASUREMENT SCALES Metric

Numerical Scales: Example:

Using a 10-point scale, where 1 is not at all important and 10 is very important, how important is ______ in your decision to do business with a particular vendor.
Note: you fill in the blank with an attribute, such as reliable delivery, product quality, complaint resolution, and so forth.

MEASUREMENT SCALES Metric

Semantic Differential Scales: A scaling technique in which respondents are asked to check which space between a set of bipolar adjectives or phrases best describes their feelings toward the stimulus object.
Example: My sales representative is . . . . Courteous ___ ___ ___ ___ Friendly ___ ___ ___ ___ Helpful ___ ___ ___ ___ Honest ___ ___ ___ ___

___ ___ ___ ___

Discourteous Unfriendly Unhelpful Dishonest

MEASUREMENT SCALES Metric Graphic-Ratings Scales:

A scaling technique in which respondents are asked to indicate their ratings of an attribute by placing a check at the appropriate point on a line that runs from one extreme of the attribute to the other. Please evaluate each attribute in terms of how important the attribute is to you personally (your company) by placing an X at the position on the horizontal line that most reflects your feelings. Not Important Very Important Courteousness _____________________________________ Friendliness _____________________________________ Helpfulness _____________________________________ Knowledgeable _____________________________________

MEASUREMENT SCALES Nonmetric Categorical scale:

Categorical scales are nominally measured opinion scales that have two or more response categories. How satisfied are you with your current job?
[ [ [ [ [ ] ] ] ] ]

Very Satisfied Somewhat Satisfied Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied Somewhat Dissatisfied Very Dissatisfied

Note: Some researchers consider this a metric scale when coded 1 5 .

MEASUREMENT SCALES Nonmetric Constant-Sum Method:

A scaling technique in which respondents are asked to divide some given sum among two or more attributes on the basis of their importance to them. Please divide 100 points among the following attributes in terms of the relative importance of each attribute to you.

Courteous Service Friendly Service Helpful Service Knowledgeable Service Total

____ ____ ____ ____ 100

MEASUREMENT SCALES Nonmetric Paired Comparison Method:

A scaling technique in which respondents are given pairs of stimulus objects and asked which object in a pair they prefer most. Please circle the attribute describing a sales representative which you consider most desirable.

Courteous Friendly Helpful

versus versus versus

Knowledgeable Helpful Courteous

MEASUREMENT SCALES Nonmetric

Sorting:
A scaling technique in which respondents are asked to indicate their beliefs or opinions by arranging objects (items) on the basis of perceived importance, similarity, preference or some other attribute.

MEASUREMENT SCALES Nonmetric

Rank Order Method:
A scaling technique in which respondents are presented with several stimulus objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank them with respect to a specific characteristic.
Please rank the following attributes on how important each is to you in relation to a sales representative. Place a 1 beside the attribute which is most important, a 2 next to the attribute that is second in importance, and so on. Courteous Service Friendly Service Helpful Service Knowledgeable Service ___ ___ ___ ___

Scale Development

Practical Decisions When Developing Scales:

Number of items (indicators) to measure a concept? Number of scale categories? Odd or even number of categories?
(Include neutral point ?) Balanced or unbalanced scales? Forced or non-forced choice? (Include Dont Know ?) Category labels for scales? Scale reliability and validity?

Scale Development
Balanced vs. Unbalanced Scales?
Balanced: To what extent do you consider TV shows with sex and violence to be acceptable for teenagers to view? __ Very Acceptable __ Somewhat Acceptable __ Neither Acceptable or Unacceptable __ Somewhat Unacceptable __ Very Unacceptable Unbalanced: __ Very Acceptable __ Somewhat Acceptable __ Unacceptable

Scale Development

Forced or Non-Forced?
How likely are you to purchase a laptop PC in the next six months? Very Very Unlikely Likely 1 2 3 4 5 6 __ No Opinion

Scale Development
Category Labels for Scales?
Verbal Label: How important is the size of the hard drive in selecting a laptop PC to purchase? Very Somewhat Neither Important Somewhat Very Unimportant Unimportant or Unimportant Important Important 1 2 3 4 5 Numerical Label: How likely are you to purchase a laptop PC in the next six months? Very Very Unlikely Likely 1 2 3 4 5 Unlabeled: How important is the weight of the laptop PC in deciding which brand to purchase? Very Very Unimportant Important

___

___

___

___

___

MEASUREMENT SCALES

Choosing a Measurement Scale:

Capabilities of Respondents. Context of Scale Application. Data Analysis Approach. Validity and Reliability.

MEASUREMENT SCALES

Assessing Measurement Scales:

Validity

Reliability
Measurement Error = occurs when the values obtained in a survey (observed values) are not the same as the true values (population values).

RESEARCH DESIGN

Types of Errors:

Nonresponse = problem definition, refusal, sampling, etc. Response = respondent or interviewer. Data Collection Instrument: Construct Development. Scaling Measurement. Questionnaire Design/Sequence, etc. Data Analysis. Interpretation.

SECONDARY DATA

Data that has been gathered previously for other purposes.

SECONDARY DATA

Secondary Data Issues:

Availability Relevance

Accuracy
Sufficiency

RESEARCH PROCESS Identify and Define Research Problem

Theory / Practice Hypotheses / Conceptualization Research Design

Data collection Data Analysis Findings

Data Analysis
Methods:
Dependence

Multiple Regression Discriminant Analysis ANOVA/MANOVA Factor Analysis Cluster Analysis

Interdependence

Research Design & Data Collection

Learning Checkpoint:

Define a research problem to be studied. Identify the topics /concepts that will be covered
to answer research questions. Identify the types of questions and/or scaling you will use. How will you evaluate the questions/scales you use? Determine the best way to collect the data. Present group suggestions; defend.