Bachelor of Computer Applications (Part-III)

• Introduction: Network Definition, Basic components of a

network, network types and topologies, Uses of computer
networks, network architecture. Transmission Media: Coaxial
cable, twisted pair cable, fibre optics & satellites. OSI
referable model, TCP/IP references model, comparison of OSI
and TCP reference model.
• Introduction to Analog and Digital Transmission: Telephone
system, Modems, Types of modems, pulse code modulation.
Transmission & Switching: Multiplexing, circuit switching
packet switching, hybrid switching, ISDN service transmission.
• Local Area Network Protocols: CSMA Protocols, BRAP,
MLMA, IEEE standards 602, Token Bus, Token Ring, FDDI.
• Data Link Layer Design Issues: Services provided to Network
layer framing, error control, flow control, link management. Error
detection & correction, Elementary Datalink Protocols.
• Design Issues of Network Layer: Services provided to transport
layer, routing, connection, internet & world wide web.
• Network Security and Privacy: Brief Introduction to Cryptography.
• Network Services: File transfer, Access & Management, Electronic
Mail, Remote logic
 Unit 1
• Introduction: Network Definition,
Basic components of a network,
network types and topologies, Uses of
computer networks, network
architecture. Transmission Media:
Coaxial cable, twisted pair cable,
fibre optics & satellites. OSI
referable model, TCP/IP references
model, comparison of OSI and TCP
reference model.
 Networking
• A computer network is a group of interconnected
computers. Networks may be classified
according to a wide variety of characteristics.

• In the world of computers, networking is the

practice of linking two or more computing
devices together for the purpose of sharing data.
Networks are built with a mix of computer
hardware and computer software.
 Network Classification
• The following list presents major
categories used for classifying networks.

• Local Area Network (LAN),

• Wide Area Network (WAN),
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).
 Connection method/
Transmission Media
Computer networks can also be classified
according to the hardware technology that is
used to connect the individual devices in the
network such as:
• Coaxial cable
• Twisted pair cable
• Fibre optics
• satellites
• Ethernet,
• Wireless LAN.
 Optical Fiber
• An optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or plastic fiber that
carries light along its length. Fiber optics is the overlap
of applied science and engineering concerned with the
design and application of optical fibers. Optical fibers are
widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits
transmission over longer distances and at higher data
rates ("bandwidth"), than other forms of communications.
Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals
travel along them with less loss, and they are immune to
electromagnetic interference. Optical fibers are also
used to form sensors, and in a variety of other
applications.
 Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable is a cable consisting of an inner
conductor, surrounded by a tubular insulating
layer typically made from a flexible material with
a high dielectric constant, all of which is then
surrounded by another conductive layer
(typically of fine woven wire for flexibility, or of a
thin metallic foil), and then finally covered again
with a thin insulating layer on the outside. The
term coaxial comes from the inner conductor
and the outer shield sharing the same geometric
axis. Coaxial cables are often used as a
transmission line for radio frequency signals.
Coaxial cable
Twisted pair cable
 Twisted pair cable
Twisted pair cabling is a form of wiring in which
two conductors (two halves of a single circuit)
are wound together for the purposes of
canceling out electromagnetic interference (EMI)
from external sources; for instance,
electromagnetic radiation from unshielded
twisted pair (UTP) cables, and crosstalk
between neighboring pairs. Twisting wires
decreases interference because the loop area
between the wires (which determines the
magnetic coupling into the signal) is reduced. In
Fibre optics
 Fibre optics
• An optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or plastic fiber that
carries light along its length. Fiber optics is the overlap of
applied science and engineering concerned with the
design and application of optical fibers. Optical fibers are
widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits
transmission over longer distances and at higher data
rates (a.k.a "bandwidth"), than other forms of
communications. Fibers are used instead of metal wires
because signals travel along them with less loss, and
they are immune to electromagnetic interference. Optical
fibers are also used to form sensors, and in a variety of
other applications.
 satellites
• In the context of
spaceflight, a satellite is
an object which has been
placed into orbit by
human endeavor. Such
objects are sometimes
called artificial satellites
to distinguish them from
natural satellites such as
the Moon.
Ethernet :Ethernet uses physical wiring to
connect devices. Often deployed devices
are hubs, switches, bridges, and/or
routers.

Wireless LAN: Wireless LAN technology is

designed to connect devices without
wiring. These devices use radio waves as
transmission medium.
 Network topology
• Network Topology signifies the way in which
devices in the network see their logical relations
to one another. The use of the term "logical"
here is significant. That is, network topology is
independent of the "physical" layout of the
network. Even if networked computers are
physically placed in a linear arrangement, if they
are connected via a hub, the network has a Star
topology, rather than a Bus Topology. In this
regard the visual and operational characteristics
of a network are distinct; the logical network
topology is not necessarily the same as the
physical layout.
 Network topology
Computer networks may be classified according
to the network topology upon which the network
is based, such as:
• Bus network,
• Star network,
• Ring network,
• Mesh network,
• Star-bus network,
• Tree or Hierarchical topology network.
 Bus Topology
• A bus topology
connects computers
along a single or
more cable to connect
linearly as figure 1. A
network that uses a
bus topology is
referred to as a "bus
network" which was
the original form of
Ethernet networks
Ring Topology
 Ring Topology
• Each computer in the ring examines all
messages, passes them on if they are not
the destination node. If no computer
accepts a message, it returns to the
sender, which removes it from the ring.
• All clients have equal access to data. This
gives even performance under heavy
demand conditions.Difficult to add another
host to the ring.
Start Topology
 Star Topology
• All signals are directed through the central
hub.
• Reduces risk of failure.
Expanding the network is simple.
Managing the network is centralised.
If the hub breaks down, the system fails.
Hybrid Topology
 Hybrid Topology
• A series of star topologies with the hubs
connected by a bus trunk (the backbone
of the network).
• Network expansion is simple. If one client
fails, the entire network does not fail.
If one hub fails, all connections to that hub
fail, although other hubs continue to
function.
 Mesh Topology
• Mesh topologies are networks in which
many paths connect computers.

• This redundancy allows the system to

continue if some connections fail.
However, multiple connections are
expensive.
 Types of networks
Below is a list of the most common types
of computer networks in order of scale:

• Local Area Network (LAN)

• Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Local Area Network (LAN)
• A network covering a small geographic
area, like a home, office, or building.
Current LANs are most likely to be based
on Ethernet technology. For example, a
library may have a wired or wireless LAN
for users to interconnect local devices
(e.g., printers and servers) and to connect
to the internet.
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
A WAN is a data communications network
that covers a relatively broad geographic
area (i.e. one city to another and one
country to another country) and that often
uses transmission facilities provided by
common carriers, such as telephone
companies. WAN technologies generally
function at the lower three layers of the
OSI reference model: the physical layer,
the data link layer, and the network layer
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• A Metropolitan Area Network is a network
that connects two or more Local Area
Networks or Campus Area Networks
together but does not extend beyond the
boundaries of the immediate town/city.
Routers, switches and hubs are connected
to create a Metropolitan Area Network.
 Internetwork
• Two or more networks or network segments connected using devices, such
as a router. Any interconnection among or between public, private,
commercial, industrial, or governmental networks may also be defined as an
internetwork.
• In modern practice, the interconnected networks use the Internet Protocol.
There are at least three variants of internetwork, depending on who
administers and who participates in them:

• Intranet
• Extranet
• Internet

• Intranets and extranets may or may not have connections to the Internet. If
connected to the Internet, the intranet or extranet is normally protected from
being accessed from the Internet without proper authorization. The Internet
is not considered to be a part of the intranet or extranet, although it may
serve as a portal for access to portions of an extranet.
 Intranet
• An intranet is a set of networks, using the
Internet Protocol and IP-based tools such as
web browsers and file transfer applications, that
is under the control of a single administrative
entity. That administrative entity closes the
intranet to all but specific, authorized users.
Most commonly, an intranet is the internal
network of an organization. A large intranet will
typically have at least one web server to provide
users with organizational information.
 Extranet
• An extranet is a network or internetwork that is
limited in scope to a single organization or entity
but which also has limited connections to the
networks of one or more other usually, but not
necessarily, trusted organizations or entities
(e.g. a company's customers may be given
access to some part of its intranet creating in
this way an extranet, while at the same time the
customers may not be considered 'trusted' from
a security standpoint).
 Internet
• The Internet is a specific internetwork. It consists of a worldwide
interconnection of governmental, academic, public, and private
networks based upon the networking technologies of the Internet
Protocol Suite. The Internet is also the communications backbone
underlying the World Wide Web (WWW). The 'Internet' is most
commonly spelled with a capital 'I' as a proper noun, for historical
reasons and to distinguish it from other generic internetworks.\

• Participants in the Internet use a diverse array of methods of several

hundred documented, and often standardized, protocols compatible
with the Internet Protocol Suite and an addressing system (IP
Addresses) administered by the Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority and address registries. Service providers and large
enterprises exchange information about the reachability of their
address spaces through the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP),
forming a redundent world-wide mesh of transmission paths.
Basic Hardware Components in Networking

All networks are made up of basic hardware

building blocks to interconnect network nodes,
such as:

• Network Interface Cards (NICs),

• Bridges,
• Hubs,
• Switches, and
• Routers
 Repeater
• A repeater is an electronic device that
receives a signal and retransmits it at a
higher level or higher power, or onto the
other side of an obstruction, so that the
signal can cover longer distances without
degradation. In most twisted pair ethernet
configurations, repeaters are required for
cable runs longer than 100 meters away
from the computer .
Network Interface Cards (NICs)
• A network card, network adapter or NIC
(network interface card) is a piece of
computer hardware designed to allow
computers to communicate over a
computer network. It provides physical
access to a networking medium and often
provides a low-level addressing system
through the use of MAC addresses. It
allows users to connect to each other
either by using cables or wirelessly.
 Bridges
• A network bridge connects multiple network segments. Bridges do
not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do. Once the
bridge associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that
address only to that port. Bridges do send broadcasts to all ports
except the one on which the broadcast was received.
• Bridges come in three basic types:

• Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs)

• Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN)
link between LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is
slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced by
routers.
• Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote
stations to LANs.
 Hubs
• A hub contains multiple ports. When a
packet arrives at one port, it is copied to
all the ports of the hub for transmission.
When the packets are copied, the
destination address in the frame does not
change to a broadcast address. It does
this in a rudimentary way, it simply copies
the data to all of the Nodes connected to
the hub.
 Switches
• A switch is a device that performs switching. Specifically,
it forwards and filters (chunk of data communication)
between ports (connected cables). This is distinct from a
hub in that it only forwards the datagrams to the ports
involved in the communications rather than all ports
connected. Strictly speaking, a switch is not capable of
routing traffic based on IP address which is necessary
for communicating between network segments or within
a large or complex LAN. Some switches are capable of
routing based on IP addresses but are still called
switches as a marketing term. A switch normally has
numerous ports with the intention that most or all of the
network be connected directly to a switch, or another
switch that is in turn connected to a switch.
 Routers
• Routers are networking devices that forward
data packets between networks using headers
and forwarding tables to determine the best path
to forward the packets. Routers also provide
interconnectivity between like and unlike media .
They use preconfigured static routes, status of
their hardware interfaces, and routing protocols
to select the best route between any two
subnets. A router is connected to at least two
networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a
LAN and its ISP's network.
 Routers
• Interconnect dissimilar subnetworks
– Provide a link between networks
– Provide for routing and delivery of data between processes on
end systems attached to different networks
– Do not require modifications of architecture of subnetworks
• Must accommodate differences among networks
– Addressing schemes
– Maximum packet sizes
– Interfaces
– Reliability
• Satisfied by internetworking protocol implemented in all
end systems and routers
– IP
Network architecture
 Network architecture
In computing, network architecture is the design of a computer network. In
telecommunication, the term network architecture has the following
meanings:

• The design principles, physical configuration, functional

organization, operational procedures, and data formats
used as the bases for the design, construction,
modification, and operation of a communications
network.
• The structure of an existing communications network,
including the physical configuration, facilities, operational
structure, operational procedures, and the data formats
in use.
• It outlines the products and services required in data
communication networks.
 OSI referable model
• The Open Systems Interconnection Basic
Reference Model (OSI Reference Model or OSI
Model) is an abstract description for layered
communications and computer network protocol
design. It was developed as part of the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) initiative. In its
most basic form, it divides network architecture
into seven layers which, from top to bottom, are
the Application, Presentation, Session,
Transport, Network, Data-Link, and Physical
Layers. It is therefore often referred to as the
OSI Seven Layer Model.
• A layer is a collection of conceptually
similar functions that provide services to
the layer above it and receives service
from the layer below it. For example, a
layer that provides error-free
communications across a network
provides the path needed by applications
above it, while it calls the next lower layer
to send and receive packets that make up
the contents of the path
OSI referable model
OSI referable model
OSI referable model
 OSI Layers

3
An Exchange Using the OSI Model
Physical Layer
 Physical Layer
Provides physical interface for transmission of
information.

Defines rules by which bits are passed from one

system to another on a physical communication
medium.
Covers all - mechanical, electrical, functional and
procedural - aspects for physical communication.
Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of
voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum
transmission distances, physical connectors, and
other similar attributes are defined by physical layer
specifications.
Data Link Layer
 Data Link Layer
Data link layer attempts to provide reliable
communication over the physical layer interface.

Breaks the outgoing data into frames and

reassemble the received frames.
Create and detect frame boundaries.
Handle errors by implementing an acknowledgement
and retransmission scheme.
Implement flow control.
Supports points-to-point as well as broadcast
communication.
Supports simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex
communication.
Data Link Layer Example
Network Layer
 Network Layer
Implements routing of frames (packets) through the
network.

 Defines the most optimum path the packet should

take from the source to the destination
 Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can
be identified.
 Handles congestion in the network.
 Facilitates interconnection between heterogeneous
networks (Internetworking).
 The network layer also defines how to fragment a
packet into smaller packets to accommodate
different media.
 TCP/IP references model
• Developed by the US Defense Advanced
Research Project Agency (DARPA) for its packet
switched network (ARPANET)
• Used by the global Internet
• No official model but a working one.
– Application layer
– Host to host or transport layer
– Internet layer
– Network access layer
– Physical layer
 TCP/IP references model
Application Layer
Application programs using the network
Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)
Management of end-to-end message transmission,
error detection and error correction
Network Layer (IP)
Handling of datagrams : routing and congestion
Data Link Layer
Management of cost effective and reliable data delivery,
access to physical networks
Physical Layer
Physical Media
TCP/IP Model

Comparison of OSI & TCP/IP

Models
comparison of OSI and TCP
reference model.