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Lecture 13

AO Control Theory
Claire Max
with many thanks to Don Gavel and Don Wiberg
UC Santa Cruz
February 19, 2013
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What are control systems?
Control is the process of making a system variable
adhere to a particular value, called the reference
value.
A system designed to follow a changing reference is
called tracking control or servo.
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Outline of topics
What is control?
- The concept of closed loop feedback control
A basic tool: the Laplace transform
- Using the Laplace transform to characterize the time
and frequency domain behavior of a system
- Manipulating Transfer functions to analyze systems
How to predict performance of the controller
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3
Aberrated wavefront
phase surfaces
Telescope Aperture
Imaging
dector Wavefront corrector
(Deformable Mirror)
Adaptive Optics Control
Wavefront
sensor
Corrected Wavefront
Computer
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Differences between open-loop and
closed-loop control systems
Open-loop: control system
uses no knowledge of the
output
Closed-loop: the control
action is dependent on the
output in some way
Feedback is what
distinguishes open from
closed loop
What other examples can
you think of?
OPEN
CLOSED
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More about open-loop systems
Need to be carefully
calibrated ahead of time:
Example: for a
deformable mirror, need
to know exactly what
shape the mirror will have
if the n actuators are each
driven with a voltage V
n

Question: how might you
go about this calibration?
OPEN
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Some Characteristics of Feedback
Increased accuracy (gets to the desired final position
more accurately because small errors will get corrected
on subsequent measurement cycles)
Less sensitivity to nonlinearities (e.g. hysteresis in the
deformable mirror) because the system is always
making small corrections to get to the right place
Reduced sensitivity to noise in the input signal
BUT: can be unstable under some circumstances (e.g. if
gain is too high)

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Historical control systems: float valve
As liquid level falls, so does float, allowing more liquid to flow
into tank
As liquid level rises, flow is reduced and, if needed, cut off
entirely
Sensor and actuator are both contained in the combination of
the float and supply tube
Credit: Franklin, Powell, Emami-Naeini
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Block Diagrams: Show Cause and Effect
Pictorial representation of cause and effect
Interior of block shows how the input and output are
related.
Example b: output is the time derivative of the input
Credit: DiStefano et al. 1990
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Summing Block Diagrams are circles
Block becomes a circle or summing point
Plus and minus signs indicate addition or subtraction
(note that sum can include subtraction)
Arrows show inputs and outputs as before
Sometimes there is a cross in the circle
X
Credit: DiStefano et al. 1990
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A home thermostat from a control
theory point of view

Credit: Franklin, Powell, Emami-Naeini
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Block diagram for an automobile cruise
control

Credit: Franklin, Powell, Emami-Naeini
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Example 1
Draw a block diagram for the equation
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Example 1
Draw a block diagram for the equation
Credit: DiStefano et al. 1990
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Example 2
Draw a block diagram for how your eyes and brain help
regulate the direction in which you are walking
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Example 2
Draw a block diagram for how your eyes and brain help
regulate the direction in which you are walking
Credit: DiStefano et al. 1990
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Summary so far
Distinction between open loop and closed loop
Advantages and disadvantages of each
Block diagrams for control systems
Inputs, outputs, operations
Closed loop vs. open loop block diagrams
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The Laplace Transform Pair
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

i
i
st
st
ds e s H
i
t h
dt e t h s H
2
1
0
Example 1: decaying exponential
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )

>
+

s
s
e
s
dt e s H
e t h
t s
t s
t
Re ;
1
1
0
0
Re(s)
Im(s)
x
-
t 0
Transform:
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The Laplace Transform Pair
Inverse Transform:
( )
t
t
t
i
i
st
e
d i
i
e
d i e
i
ds
s
e
i
t h

2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
Re(s)
Im(s)
x
-

d e i ds
e
s
e s
i
i
i

+
+
1
1


The above integration makes use of the Cauchy Principal Value Theorem:
If F(s) is analytic then
( ) ( ) a iF ds
a s
s F 2
1

Example 1 (continued), decaying exponential

20
The Laplace Transform Pair
Example 2: Damped sinusoid
Re(s)
Im(s)
x
-
x
-

t
0
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) s
w
w
w
w
s
- >

+ +
+
- +

+
+

+
-
-
s
i s i s
s H
e e
e e e
t e t h
t i t i
t i t i t
t
Re ;
1 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
cos
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Laplace Transform Pairs
h(t)
H(s)
unit step
0 t
s
1
(like lim
s0
e
-st
)

t
e

+ s
1
( ) t e
t
cos

+ +
+
- + w i s i s
1 1
2
1
( ) t e
t
sin

+ + - + w i s i s i
1 1
2
1
delayed step
0 t T
s
e
sT
unit pulse
0 t T
s
e
sT
1
1
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Laplace Transform Properties (1)

L h t
( )
+ g t
( ) { }
H s
( )
+ G s
( )

L h t + T
( ) { }
e
sT
H s
( )

L t
( ) { }
1

L h t
( )
g t - t
( )
d t
0
t

H s
( )
G s
( )

L h t
( )
d t - t
( )
d t
0
t

H s
( )

h t t
( )
e
i t
d t
0
t

H i
( )
e
i t
Linearity
Time-shift
Dirac delta function transform
(sifting property)
Convolution
Impulse response
Frequency response
( ) 0 T
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Laplace Transform Properties (2)
h(t)
x(t)
y(t)
H(s)
X(s)
Y(s)
convolution of input x(t)
with impulse response h(t)
product of input spectrum X(s) with
frequency response H(s)
(H(s) in this role is called the transfer
function)
System Block Diagrams
Power or Energy
( ) ( )
( )

d i H
ds s H
i
dt t h
i
i
2
2
0
2
2
1
2
1
Parsevals Theorem

L h t
( )
x t - t
( )
d t
0
t

H s
( )
X s
( )
Y s
( )
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Closed loop control (simple example, H(s)=1)
E s
( )
W s
( )
gC s
( )
E s
( )
solving for E(s),
E s
( )

W s
( )
1+ gC s
( )
Our goal will be to suppress X(s) (residual) by high-gain feedback so that Y(s)~W(s)
W(s)
+
gC(s)
-
E(s)
Y(s)
residual
correction
disturbance
where g = loop gain
What is a good choice for C(s)?...
Note: for consistency around the
loop, the units of the gain g must be
the inverse of the units of C(s).
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The integrator, one choice for C(s)
( ) ( )

<

s
s C
t
t
t c
1
0 1
0 0
A system whose impulse response is the unit step
acts as an integrator to the input signal:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t d t x t d t x t t c t y
t t

0 0
t
0
c(t-t)
x(t)
t
0 t
c(t)
x(t)
y(t)
that is, C(s) integrates the past history of inputs, x(t)
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26
Control Loop Arithmetic

Y s
( )
A(s)W s
( )
A s
( )
B s
( )
Y s
( )
Solving for Y(s),

Y s
( )

A s
( )
W s
( )
1+ A s
( )
B s
( )
Instability if any of the roots of the polynomial 1+A(s)B(s)
are located in the right-half of the s-plane
Y(s)
W(s)
+
B(s)
-
input
A(s)
output
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An integrator has high gain at low frequencies, low gain at high frequencies.
C(s)
X(s)
Y(s)
( )
( )
s
s X
s Y
In Laplace terminology:
The Integrator (2)
Write the input/output transfer function for an integrator in closed loop:
+
gC(s)
-
X(s)
Y(s)
W(s)
H
CL
(s)
W(s)
X(s)

The closed loop transfer function with the integrator in the feedback loop is:
C s
( )

1
s
X s
( )

W s
( )
1+ g s

sW s
( )
s + g
H
CL
s
( )
W s
( )
input disturbance (e.g. atmospheric wavefront)
closed loop transfer function
output (e.g. residual wavefront to science camera)
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Block Diagram for Closed Loop Control
9
Our goal will be to nd a C(f) that suppress e(t) (residual) so that !
DM
tracks !
where ! = loop gain
H(f) = Camera Exposure x DM Response x Computer Delay
C(f) = Controller Transfer Function
! (t)
+
H(f)
-
e(t)

DM
(t)
residual
correction
disturbance
gC(f)
We can design a lter, C(f), into the feedback loop to:
a) Stabilize the feedback (i.e. keep it from oscillating)
b) Optimize performance
( )
( )
f H f gC
f e
) ( 1
1
+

! ( f )
g
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Disturbance Rejection Curve for Feedback
Control Without Compensation
17
Increasing
Gain (g)
Not so
great
rejection
Starting to
resonate
( )
f H f gC ) ( 1
1
+

! ( f )
e( f )
C(f) =1
30
The integrator, one choice for C(s)
( ) ( )

<

s
s C
t
t
t c
1
0 1
0 0
A system whos impulse response is the unit step
acts as an integrator to the input signal:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t d t x t d t x t t c t y
t t

0 0
t
0
c(t-t)
x(t)
t
0 t
c(t)
x(t)
y(t)
that is, C(s) integrates the past history of inputs, x(t)
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An integrator has high gain at low frequencies, low gain at high frequencies.
C(s)
X(s)
Y(s)
( )
( )
s
s X
s Y
In Laplace terminology:
The Integrator
Write the input/output transfer function for an integrator in closed loop:
+
gC(s)
-
X(s)
Y(s)
W(s)
H
CL
(s)
W(s)
X(s)

The closed loop transfer function with the integrator in the feedback loop is:
C s
( )

1
s
X s
( )

W s
( )
1+ g s

sW s
( )
s + g
H
CL
s
( )
W s
( )
input disturbance (e.g. atmospheric wavefront)
closed loop transfer function
output (e.g. residual wavefront to science camera)
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( )
s
s
s H
CL
+

H
CL
(s), viewed as a sinusoidal response filter:
DC response = 0
(Type-0 behavior)
( ) 0 as 0 w i H
CL
( ) w as 1 i H
CL
High-pass behavior
and the break frequency (transition from low freq to high freq
behavior) is around w ~ g
The integrator in closed loop (2)
where
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The integrator in closed loop (3)
At the break frequency, w = g, the power rejection is:
H
CL
ig
( )
2

ig
g +ig
( )
ig
g ig
( )

g
2
2g
2

1
2
Hence the break frequency is often called the half-power frequency
w
( )
2
i H
CL
1
1/2
g
~w
2
(log-log scale)
Note also that the loop gain, g, is the bandwidth of the controller.
Frequencies below g are rejected, frequencies above g are passed. By
convention, g is thus known as the gain-bandwidth product.
H
CL
(ig)
2
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Disturbance Rejection Curve for
Feedback Control With Compensation
19
Increasing
Gain (g)
Much
better
rejection
Starting to
resonate
( )
f H f gC ) ( 1
1
+

! ( f )
e( f )
C(f) = Integrator = e
-sT
/ (1 e
-sT
)
Page 35
Residual wavefront error is introduced
by two sources
1. Failure to completely cancel atmospheric phase
distortion
2. Measurement noise in the wavefront sensor

Optimize the controller for best overall
performance by varying design parameters such
as gain and sample rate
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Atmospheric turbulence
! Temporal power spectrum of atmospheric phase:
S
!
(f) = 0.077 (v/r
0
)
5/3
f
-8/ 3
! Power spectrum of residual phase
S
e
(f) = | 1/(1 + g C(f) H(f)) |
2
S
!
(f)

22
Increasing
wind
Uncontrolled
Closed Loop
Controlled
Page 37
Noise
! Measurement noise enters in at a different point in
the loop than atmospheric disturbance
! Closed loop transfer function for noise:
23
! (t)
+
H(f)
-
e(t)
!
DM
(t)
residual
correction
disturbance
gC(f) n(t)
noise
( )
( )
f H f gC
f e
) ( 1
gC( f )H( f )
+
n( f )
Noise feeds
through
Noise
averaged out
Page 38
Residual from atmosphere +
noise
! Conditions
! RMS uncorrected turbulence: 5400 nm
! RMS measurement noise: 126 nm
! gain = 0.4
! Total Closed Loop Residual = 118 nm RMS
24
Residual Turbulence
Dominates
Noise Dominates
Page 39
Increased Measurement
Noise
! Conditions
! RMS uncorrected turbulence: 5400 nm
! RMS measurement noise: 397 nm
! gain = 0.4
! Total Closed Loop Residual = 290 nm RMS
25
Residual Turbulence
Dominates
Noise Dominates
Page 40
Reducing the gain in the higher
noise case improves the residual
! Conditions
! RMS uncorrected turbulence: 5400 nm
! RMS measurement noise: 397 nm
! gain = 0.2
! Total Closed Loop Residual = 186 nm RMS
26
Residual Turbulence
Dominates
Noise Dominates
41
Quick Review
h(t)
x(t)
y(t)
H(s)
X(s)
Y(s)
convolution of input x(t)
with impulse response h(t)
product of input spectrum X(s) with
frequency response H(s)
(H(s) in this role is called the transfer
function)
System Block Diagrams

L h t
( )
x t - t
( )
d t
0
t

H s
( )
X s
( )
Y s
( )
42
( )
t
h t e

t 0
Re(s)
Im(s)
x
-s
( )
1
H s
s

+
Re(s)
Im(s)
x
-s
x
-w
w
( )
1 1 1
2
H s
s i s i w s w

+

+ - + +

t
0
( ) ( )
cos
t
h t e t
Stable input-output property: system response consists
of a series of decaying exponentials
Time Domain Transform Domain
43
Re(s)
Im(s)
x
-s
( )
1
H s
s

t 0
( )
t
h t e
+

What Instability Looks Like

Re(s)
Im(s)
x
-s
x
-w
w
( )
1 1 1
2
H s
s i s i w s w

+

- - +

t
0
( ) ( )
cos
t
h t e t
+

Time Domain Transform Domain

44
Control Loop Arithmetic
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) Y s A s W s A s B s Y s
solving for Y(s),
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1
A s W s
Y s
A s B s

+
W(s)
+
B(s)
-
input
Instability if any of the roots of the polynomial 1+A(s)B(s)
are located in the right-half of the s-plane
A(s)
Y(s)
output
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Summary
The architecture and problems associated with feedback
control systems
The use of the Laplace transform to help characterize
closed loop behavior
How to predict the performance of the adaptive optics
under various conditions of atmospheric seeing and
measurement signal-to-noise
A bit about loop stability, compensators, and other good
stuff

Page 46
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