5 ARTS

Rudolph 2007 HSB

The Skeletal System serves many important functions; it provides the shape and form for our bodies in addition to supporting, protecting, allowing bodily movement, producing blood for the body, and storing minerals.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

The ability to move is named among the characteristics of living organisms. There are two (2) types of movements seen in living organisms: - Slight movements of parts of the body - Movement of the entire body.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

Examples, plants move their roots in the direction of moisture and the Amoeba which is found in water, and is unicellular (the whole organism is a single cell).
Like other living organisms move, but unlike humans they move only in response to the presence of food particles.

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Their movement is achieved by projecting parts of its cell membrane (pseudopodia- false feet) ahead of another part (like crawling in a bag). On the other hand, humans are multi-cellular (consisting of 60 billion cells) and more complex organisms that carry out movement for various reasons and are more organized. Man consists of a framework of bones that supports and gives form to the body. This framework is called a skeleton.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

The Skeleton is divided into two sections:

the Axial Skeleton- which is comprised of the cranium / skull, sternum/, ribcage and vertebral Column. Appendicular Skeleton- which includes the limbs, the pectoral girdle (shoulder bones) and pelvic girdle.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

Rudolph 2007 HSB

Its 206 bones form a rigid framework to which the softer tissues and organs of the body are attached.

Protection
Vital organs are protected by the skeletal system.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

In multi-cellular organisms like man, the skeleton provides a mechanism of support as it provides a frame for the body (to hang on), example the vertebral column.

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The brain is protected by the surrounding skull as the heart and lungs are encased by the sternum and rib cage. Bodily movement is carried out by the interaction of the muscular and skeletal systems. For this reason, they are often grouped together as the musculo-skeletal system.

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Muscles are connected to bones by tendons.

Bones are connected to each other by ligaments.

Where bones meet one another is typically called a joint.

Muscles which cause movement of a joint are connected to two different bones and contract to pull them together.

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An example would be the contraction of the biceps and a relaxation of the triceps. This produces a bend at the elbow.
The contraction of the triceps and relaxation of the biceps produces the effect of straightening the arm.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

Blood cells are produced by the marrow located in some bones. An average of 2.6 million red blood cells are produced each second by the bone marrow to replace those worn out and destroyed by the liver.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

Bones serve as a storage area for minerals such as calcium and phosphorus. When an excess is present in the blood, buildup will occur within the bones.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

When the supply of these minerals within the blood is low, it will be withdrawn from the bones to replenish the supply.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

The human skeleton is divided into two distinct parts:

The axial skeleton consists of bones that form the axis of the body and support and protect the organs of the head, neck, and trunk.
The The The The Skull Sternum Ribs Vertebral Column

Rudolph 2007 HSB

The parts of the body are bound together, and supported, by connective tissue. Blood, which has been discussed in circulation, is a connective tissue. Some of the other types of connective tissue will be discussed in this presentation.

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They are fibrous connective tissues; cartilage; and bone. Connective tissues contain living cells which secrete chemical substances to be deposited between the cells in order to strengthen the tissue.
These secretions form an intercellular matrix.

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The cells secrete collagen, a protein which forms strong fibres. Examples of this are the ligaments which hold joints in position and the tendons which attach muscles to bones.

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This is an elastic, smooth, shiny form of connective tissue. Cartilage cells secrete a hard form of collagen and the matrix pushes apart the living cells.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

Rudolph 2007 HSB

The skeleton is first laid down in the foetus as cartilage which later develops into bone. Other types of cartilage remain as such throughout adult life. Fig. 1 shows cartilage tissue. Cartilage is elastic, but does not stretch or bend easily.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

Cartilage which develops into bone has a primary centre at which bone cells are formed.
The bone cells deposit the bone matrix, made mainly of calcium phosphate. This centre is a centre of ossification (i.e. bone formation).

As ossification spreads, the cartilage is absorbed and the cartilage cells die.

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Ossification spreads along the bone, and a hard, rigid matrix is formed with bone cells inside it. The development of ossification in young bones is shown in Fig. 2.
The bone cells in bones are scattered in concentric circles round canals (Haversian canals) which carry fine blood vessels and nerves.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

Rudolph 2007 HSB

Fig. 3 shows the living cells embedded in the hard matrix.

Fig. 4 shows the manner in which the cells are gradually forced away from the canals, although they still obtain nourishment from the blood supply.

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Each cell has many fine, fibrous processes which form before the matrix is deposited; these are shown as lines radiating.
In human beings, the long bones grow at each end, during childhood and adolescence (growth stops at an age of 20 approximately).

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The bone becomes large, and at the same time it thickens on the outside. The" inside of the bone contains spongy bone, in which cavities are left as cartilage dies away; the outside consists of hard bone with few such cavities.

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Rudolph 2007 HSB

The interior of the bone is hollow and the size of the interior' increases as the bone thickens.
Fig. 5 shows a diagram of a long bone.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

Rudolph 2007 HSB

The ends of the bone consist of spongy bone filled with red marrow in the bone cavities. Erythrocytes and granulocyte leucocytes are manufactured in this marrow.

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The hollow centre of the bone contains yellow bone marrow which mainly consists of fat cells.
Broken bones are knitted together by the outside layer of bone secreting fresh bone matrix.

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This is also a form of connective tissue, although it is not used for support. Enlarged cells are filled with deposits of oil in the cell vacuoles; the oil gradually pushes aside the cytoplasm until the cell is practically filled with fat.

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Rudolph 2007 HSB

An axial skeleton, consisting of the backbone and skull, forms the foundation of the human skeleton.
Attached to it is a rib cage.

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The appendicular skeleton consists of the four limbs attached to two bony girdles. Fig. 6 shows the skeleton of a man.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

Rudolph 2007 HSB

The backbone is the central axis of the body; it consists of 33 separate bones firmly connected to each other, yet allowing a limited amount of movement on each other (resulting in the flexibility of the backbone).

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It extends the length of the trunk, and the separate bones are bound together by ligaments.
The backbone has to support the weight of the trunk, and is curved in an S-shape for this purpose. (See Fig. 7).

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Each bone is called a vertebra, and although the vertebrae all have the same basic plan, the actual shape of any one bone varies with its position in the backbone.
The five regions of the backbone, and the number of vertebrae in each, are shown in Fig. 7.

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The cervical region is in the neck; the thoracic region is behind the chest, and the ribs are attached to these vertebrae; the lumbar region is behind the abdomen, and these vertebrae protect the abdomen.
The sacral region consists of five vertebrae fused together, and the pelvic girdle is attached to this portion of the backbone.

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The coccyx consists of four small, fused vertebrae, and it is the remnant of a tail.

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Rudolph 2007 HSB

The ventral (front) part of the bone is a thick, protective mass of bone, the centrum.
Figs. 8 and 10 show the basic structure of a vertebra. The centrum forms the main support for the backbone; attached to it dorsally is the neural arch, a ring of bone through which passes the spinal cord.

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The neural arches of all the vertebrae form a bony tube for the protection of the spinal cord.
Transverse processes project on either side of the neural arch.

Between the transverse process and the centrum is a hole, a foramen, on each side of the vertebra.

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The foramen provide exits for the spinal nerves. The neural spine is a long bony process on the dorsal (back) aspect of the neural arch.

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transverse

neural spine

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Four facets provide surfaces for articulation, that is, surfaces on which the vertebrae are capable of restricted movement, allowing the backbone to bend; the shape of the surfaces controls and restricts the movement of one bone on another.

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Two of the facets are on the top of, and two are on the bottom of, each vertebra, situated at the point where the transverse processes join the neural arch.

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Muscles and ligaments are attached to the transverse processes and the neural spine, binding the vertebrae together and controlling the movement of the backbone.
Discs of cartilage between the centra of the vertebrae absorb shock.

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These vertebrae are recognisable by the presence of vertebrarterial canals for the vertebral arteries on either side of the centrum.
The neural spine is forked at the end.

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The first two vertebrae have a special structure, due to their function; the first is the atlas and the second is the axis.
Fig. 11 shows a diagram of a cervical vertebra.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

Rudolph 2007 HSB

This bone is shown in Fig. 11.

It has no centrum. Its superior facets are large and articulate with the skull, allowing a rocking movement. There are no transverse processes and no neural spine.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

The centrum of the axis has a strong toothlike process, the odontoid peg, which fits into a hole in the atlas.
This allows a turning movement in which the atlas moves with the skull.

The atlas and axis together allow movement of the skull in all directions. (See Fig. 11).

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These possess very long neural spines which are bound together by ligaments. There are two long transverse processes with facets on top fitting into facets on the bottom of the vertebra above.

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Additional facets on either side of the centrum, and at the ends of the transverse processes, are provided for articulation with the ribs; each thoracic vertebra thus has eight facets.
Muscles are attached to the neural spine and the transverse processes. Notice the overlap of the neural spines and the transverse processes in this region of the backbone. (See Fig. 12).
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Rudolph 2007 HSB

These are very massive bones as they provide the only support for the trunk in the abdominal region.
They possess large broad transverse processes and a short broad neural spine.

The superior and inferior facets are both large. (See Fig. 13).

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These are fused together, forming the sacrum, which is the base for the pelvis.

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The skull consists of the cranium and the face bones. The cranium is formed from many bones joined together by interlocking, serrated edges, which become fused in adulthood.

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The cranium encloses the brain and protects it.

Entrances to the cranium are provided by the eye sockets, the nasal passages, and the foramen magnum, which is the entrance for the spinal cord to the brain.

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Two round swellings at the base of the skull on either side of the foramen magnum rest on the facets of the atlas.
The upper jaw bone is fused to the base of the cranium; the lower jaw bone is hinged to the temporal bone of the cranium.

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The nose has a bony framework in the upper part and a framework of cartilage in the lower part.
The cheek bone is a bony process of the upper jaw bone. (See Figs. 14 and 15).

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Rudolph 2007 HSB

These are twelve pairs of ribs in the skeleton, and all articulate with the backbone. The upper seven are joined directly to the sternum (or breast bone) by cartilage at the end of the rib.

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The next three are attached to the rib above by cartilage, while the bottom two ribs are not connected to the sternum or to the rib above; these are called floating ribs.

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Fig. 16 is a diagram of the rib cage.

Fig. 17 shows the structure of a rib; it is a curved, flat bone with a head, and a tubercle, a projecting process near the head on the outside of the rib.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

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There is a facet on the head and one on the tubercle. The facet on the head articulates with facets on the centra of two vertebrae.
The tubercle articulates on the facet of a transverse process.

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The rib cage gives rigidity to the pectoral girdle and protects the vital organs in the thoracic cavity.

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This consists of two arms articulating with the pectoral girdle and two legs articulating with the pelvic girdle.

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This girdle contains two bones, the scapulae, (single scapula), or shoulder blades, and two others, the clavicles, or collar bones.
The scapula is a flat triangular-shaped bone with a spine projecting from it. (See Fig. 18). It is embedded in muscle and is dorsal to the rib cage.
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At the head of the bone is a socket for the humerus. A facet on the spine of the scapula provides an articulatory surface for the clavicle.

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The clavicle is a long flat, gently curved bone. It articulates with the scapula at one end, and with the sternum, or breast bone, at the other end. (See Fig. 19).
There is no complete bony girdle structure; the girdle is formed by the clavicle, the scapula, and the strong muscles attached to the backbone.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

Fig. 20 shows the pectoral girdle in relation to the ribs.

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The bone in the upper arm is the humerus, which lies between the shoulder joint and the elbow joint.
The radius and the ulna are situated in the forearm; the ulna articulates with the humerus to form the elbow joint.

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The radius articulates with both the humerus and the ulna and it is capable of rotation.
The radius rotates from above the ulna to below it when the hand is turned over. The hand has two rows of small carpal bones in the wrist.

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The metacarpal bones form the palm of the hand. The phalanges form the digits, with three phalanges in each finger, and two in the thumb. (See Fig. 21).

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Rudolph 2007 HSB

Rudolph 2007 HSB

The girdle consists of a bowl-shaped, solid mass of bone formed from three fused bones. The dorsal part is firmly fixed to the sacrum, and the thinner, ventral portion is fused in the middle, as shown in Fig. 22.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

A socket in the pelvis takes the ball-shaped head of the femur bone of the leg to form the hip joint.
Fig. 23 shows the socket, and the femur; the two bones on the left in the figure are the ventral part of the girdle, and they are fused with two similar bones on the other side of the body.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

The pelvic girdle is a strong, bony structure, suitable for taking the weight of the trunk and transmitting it to the legs.

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The skeleton gives support and shape to the body. It allows movement of the body through articulation of bones at joints by the action of muscles on bones.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

It gives a protective covering, the best protection given by the body, to the most vital organs.
Fig. 6 shows the skeleton, and the particular arrangement of bones, discussed above, can be seen in relation to the whole skeleton.

Rudolph 2007 HSB

Another function of the skeleton is that it provides a store of calcium from which calcium ions may be moved into the blood as required.

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Rudolph 2007 HSB

Two, or more, bones, are connected together by ligaments, which form a fibrous capsule surrounding the joint.
Smooth, articular cartilage on the ends of the bones facilitates the movement of one bone relative to the other, and also absorbs shock.

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The space between the two pads of cartilage is filled with synovial fluid, a liquid which lubricates and cushions the joint.
The fluid is contained in a. delicate membrane, the synovial membrane, which itself is contained in the fibrous capsule surrounding the joint.

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A diagram of a cross-section through a typical joint is shown in Fig. 26, and illustrates the parts of the joint described above.
Damage to the joint causes excess synovial fluid to be formed, and the fibrous capsule bulges, causing the joint to swell.

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For example, water on the knee, and "tennis elbow", are complaints of this type.

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Rudolph 2007 HSB

A joint is described according to the degree

of movement it permits.

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The main types are: ball and socket joints, which allow free movement in all directions; hinge joints, which allow movement in one plane only; gliding joints, in which two bone surfaces move over each other, e.g. the carpals and the tarsals; fixed joints, e.g. the sutures, which join the bones of the cranium.

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An example of this type is the hip joint, shown in Fig. 23, and in diagram form in Fig. 27.
In the hip joint, the head of the femur is ball-shaped and fits into a socket in the pelvis. The ball in the socket allows free rotation in all directions.

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Ligaments bind the femur to the pelvis, and the manner in which they are attached to the bone is shown in Fig. 28. These ligaments form the fibrous capsule enclosing the joint; the remaining structures of synovial fluid and the synovial membrane are as described above under the structure of a joint.

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Another example of a ball and socket joint is the shoulder joint; a ball-shaped head in the humerus fits into a socket in the scapula.

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Rudolph 2007 HSB

Rudolph 2007 HSB

In this type of joint, the rounded end of one bone fits into the hollow of a second bone; the two structures are flat in one plane, allowing movement in one direction only.
A diagram of a section through a hinge joint is given in Fig. 29.

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The knee joint (see Fig. 30) is an example of a hinge joint; the round-shaped lower end of the femur articulates on the flattened surface of the tibia.
Ligaments bind the bones together, forming a fibrous capsule.

The patella protects the blood vessels and nerves passing the joint, as the flesh is thin at this point.

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The elbow joint is another example of a hinge joint; in it, the rounded lower end of the humerus fits into a hollow of the ulna.
The ligaments binding the humerus to the ulna are shown in Fig. 31. The radius is also bound to the ulna and humerus by ligaments, which firmly anchor the head of the radius to the ulna and to the humerus.

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These ligaments enclose two fibrous capsules for the two articulatory surfaces. The olecranon process, a projection on the ulna, prevents movement backwards past the straightened position.

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Most joints permit bones to be moved relative to each other, and thus allow movement and locomotion of the body.
The bone surfaces in a joint are prevented from wearing by the synovial fluid and the cartilage at the end of the bones.

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The ligaments prevent dislocation of the joint, that is, the head of one bone being removed from the socket of another.

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Rudolph 2007 HSB

Voluntary muscles are attached to bones to provide movement of joints.

They are therefore sometimes called skeletal muscles. Their appearance under the microscope is that of striped, or striated, tissue, hence voluntary muscle is called striped muscle.

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Involuntary muscles mostly surround the viscera; their microscopic appearance is that of smooth, or un-striated, tissue.
Involuntary muscle is called smooth muscle, or plain muscle.

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Heart muscle is a special type of tissue and is described below; it is also called cardiac muscle.
Figs. 32, 33, and 34 are photomicrographs of the three types of muscle.

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The bulk of the body of vertebrates, including man, is muscle. The lean meat from domestic, and other, animals used for food is voluntary muscle.

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Under a microscope, the muscle is seen to be composed of long fibres, which are cylindrical in cross-section and covered with a thin membrane.
Each fibre contains several nuclei, as, during growth, the nucleus of a muscle cell undergoes division, without division of the cytoplasm.

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Each fibre consists of cytoplasm and long fibrils; the fibrils are striated, i.e. they have alternate bands of light and dark coloured protein, and it is their structure which gives the muscle its striped appearance.

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The structure of a fibre is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 35. A cross-section of a voluntary muscle is shown in Fig. 36.
Bundles of fibres are enclosed in a membranous sheath; a muscle is composed of many such bundles.

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A network of capillaries and nerves passes between the fibres, with nerve endings, effectors, attached to the fibres.
A tough, shining, white sheath of connective tissue encloses the muscle, and continues from the end of the muscle to form a tendon.

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Rudolph 2007 HSB

Rudolph 2007 HSB

Each muscle fibre has several motor neuron effectors attached to its sheath. An impulse, conducted by the motor nerve, causes contraction of the muscle fibre in a very short period of time (about 0-01 seconds).

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On contraction of the fibres, the muscle fibre becomes shorter and thicker, but its total volume remains the same.
Each muscle fibre behaves according to the "all-or-none" principle; if the nervous impulse is strong enough to cause contraction, then it causes complete contraction of the fibre.

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The muscular effort is determined by the number of fibres contracted by nervous impulses. A single impulse contracts a muscle fibre for about 0.04 seconds, after that it relaxes again. For a sustained contraction, a series of nervous impulses is sent, so that the individual contractions merge into one sustained contraction.

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Sufficient impulses are conducted by motor neurons to contract a sufficient number of fibres to produce the necessary muscular effort.
Most voluntary muscles are controlled by the motor centres of the brain, and so voluntary muscular action is under the control of the will.

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Voluntary muscles contain protein, glycogen and mineral salts; the glycogen is stored ready to provide energy for muscular action. Tissue respiration releases heat and energy for muscular action and forms waste products.
Muscles become fatigued with prolonged use, and this is explained under muscular fatigue.

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This type of muscle tissue contains spindleshaped cells, each cell containing one nucleus in the centre of the cell. (See Fig. 17.37).
The cells are packed-tightly together, forming sheets of muscle tissue.

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A sheet of involuntary muscle usually consists of two layers, with the axes of the muscle cells in each layer at right angles to each other.
The sheets of muscle mainly envelop visceral organs, e.g. the intestine; the bladder.

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Motor neurons of the autonomic system have effector endings on the sheet of muscle; impulses transmitted by these nerves control the waves of contraction in the sheet of muscle.

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Rudolph 2007 HSB

A very slow con traction, time of about 15 seconds is characteristic of this type of muscle.
Each part of the muscle contracts and relaxes in this time, and the wave of contraction and relaxation passes along the sheet of muscle.

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No fatigue is experienced due to the slow rate of contraction, and the supply of materials from the blood is adequate to meet the needs of tissue respiration in the muscle.

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Heart muscle consists of a network of stripped fibres which branch, and join other fibres.
There is no membrane surrounding the fibre as in voluntary muscles. The fibres contain separate cells with a nucleus in each.

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This type of muscle is like striped muscle (as the fibres contain striated fibrils), and like smooth muscle (as the cells are uninucleate). (See Fig. 38).

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Rudolph 2007 HSB

The action of heart muscle differs from both voluntary and involuntary muscles in being both automatic and rhythmic. The contraction time is faster than that of involuntary muscle but slower than that of voluntary muscle. It is not under the control of the motor centres of the brain, but it is controlled by the autonomic nervous system.

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It acts independently of neuron connections, and beats (contracts) rhythmically and continually.
It is supplied with autonomic nerve endings which influence the rate of beating.

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The contractions of muscles cause the movement of joints and of viscera. Muscles also give rigidity to the skeleton by preventing the movement of bones.

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Tissue respiration releases heat to warm the body and energy to produce work by muscular action.
Certain muscles provide protection for parts of the body, e.g. the abdominal muscles protect the viscera.

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All voluntary muscles work in pairs in opposition to each other.

This is necessary because a muscle can only contract or relax, so that it can only pull and cannot push. The muscles that move a joint either cause the angle of a joint to decrease (flexors) or to increase [extensors).

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For example, in the elbow joint (see Fig. 39), the biceps muscle is a flexor; it is situated in front of the humerus and is attached by two tendons to its origin on the scapula.
Its insertion is on the radius, where it is attached by one tendon.

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Contraction of the biceps raises the forearm, decreasing the angle of the joint. The triceps muscle is situated behind the humerus; it is attached by three tendons to its origins, one to the scapula and two to the humerus.
Its insertion is on the ulna, where it is attached by one tendon.

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The triceps is an extensor, and increases the angle of the joint.

The triceps muscle steadies the arm, giving it rigidity when the biceps muscle is used to lift a load. The brain coordinates the muscular movement by sending nervous impulses which are sufficient to cause sufficient muscular action to lift the load.

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Fig. 40 shows diagrammatically the pair of muscles in opposition to each other and the action of the biceps muscle in lifting a load. The brain, from information received from the eye, and from previous learned experience, estimates the weight of the load, and causes muscular action which supplies just sufficient effort to move the estimated weight.

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All senses are coordinated by the brain in controlling movement.

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Posture is the manner in which the body is held at rest by the muscles attached to the skeleton.
In good posture, the backbone is upright, with its normal curvatures, i.e. the cervical region is convex forwards, the thoracic region is concave forwards, the lumbar region is convex forwards, and the sacral region is concave forwards.
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The weight of the body is balanced on the feet through the pelvis.
In bad posture, the point of balance is upset, causing a strain on the muscles to compensate for the lack of proper balance; this produces uneven development of the muscles and a misshapen body.

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If the backbone is curved too much, it cramps the thoracic cavity 'and hinders proper breathing; is bad for all activities since insufficient oxygen is made available.
The abdominal cavity can also be cramped, and this hinders peristalsis.

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Good posture is a matter of habit.

Once the habit is lost, it is difficult to regain. It is important that children learn good posture for standing; for writing, and for reading. Good and bad postures are shown in Fig. 40.

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1.

What are the structures and properties of the different types of connective tissue?
How do bones grow? Illustrate your answer with particular reference to the healing of a broken long bone.

2.

3. Make a labelled diagram of the basic plan of a vertebra.

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4. Describe the mode of articulation of the skull on the backbone. 5. Compare the joints of the leg with those of the arm.
6. Using the elbow as an example of a joint, explain how muscles cause movement of the joint.

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7.

Describe the structure of a voluntary muscle. What is the source of energy for the movement of the muscle? Describe, with a suitable example, the structure and function of involuntary, or smooth muscle.

8.

9.

Write a brief account of good posture and its importance.

10. A wound is made in an arm of a man. Describe all the defence mechanisms of the body that are brought into action from the moment of wounding until the wound has finally healed.
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