Pakistan Institute of Engineering & Applied Sciences

(PIEAS)
Lectures on
Radiation Detection
Delivered at Workshop in PNRA (April, 2008)
Dr. Nasir M Mirza
Deputy Chief Scientist,
Department of Physics & Applied mathematics,
PIEAS, P.O. Nilore, 45650, Islamabad.

Email: nmm@pieas.edu.pk
Ph: +92 51 9290273 (ext: 3059)
Gas-filled Detectors
Recommended Text
Books
1. Glenn F Knoll s
Radiation Detection
& Measurement
(recent edition).
Lecture Two:
Various Types of Radiation Detectors
Effect Type of Instrument Detector
Electrical 1. Ionizing Chamber
2. Proportional Counter
3. GM Tube
4. Solid State Detector
1. Gas
2. Gas
3. Gas
4. Semiconductor
Chemical 1. Film

2. Chemical Dosimeter
1. Photographic
Emulsion
2. Solid or Liquid
Light 1. Scintillation counter 1. Crystal or Liquid
Thermo-
luminescense
1. Thermo - luminescense
dosimeter
1. Crystal
Heat 1. Calorimeter 1. Solid or Liquid
Gas Filled Detectors
Ion chamber
Proportional
counter
GM tube
Ion Chamber
Ionization Chamber a detector in which ion pairs (positive
ion and free electron) created by interaction with radiation are
collected from a gas.

W-value: the average energy lost by an incident particle per
ion pair formed
Substantially greater than the ionization energy
Weak function of the gas involved, type of radiation, and
radiation energy
Relatively constant in practice
Can be used to calculate number of ion pairs formed
W-value
The average energy lost to form an ion pair (Typical 30-35 eV)

Ionization Chamber as a Gas Detector
Ionization Processes in Gas
1. Ionization and excitation of gas
molecules happened along the
particle track and resulting positive
ion and free electron
2. If an external electric field is
applied, the charges would move to
anode and cathode to yield
electronic output
3. Various processes are:
Diffusion
Charge transfer
Recombination
Condenser-type pocket dosimeter
and its charger.

The dosimeter measures gamma
and X-rays within 15% for 30keV
to 1.2 MeV in the range 0-200 mR.
Ion-chambers as survey meters
Small amounts of
electrical current are
measured using sensitive
current-measuring devices
called electrometers. Two
devices consisting of
ionization chambers and
electrometers in nuclear
industry are survey meters
and dose calibrators.
Post-ionization
Once an ion pair is created, the following can occur:
Recombination
Charge transfer collisions (positive ion and neutral gas molecule)
Electron captured by neutral particle to form negative ion
Recombination can be minimized by applying an external electric field to the
gas, separating the ion pair constituents.
Gas-filled Detectors
In most ionization
chambers, the gas
between the electrodes is
air. The chamber may or
may not be sealed from the
atmosphere. Many
different designs have
been used for the
electrodes in an ionization
chamber, but usually they
consist of a wire inside of a
cylinder, or a pair of
concentric cylinders.
Pocket Dosimeter is an Ionization Chamber
The voltage change across the capacitor is measured and is related to the amount of
electrical charge collected by the ionization chamber electrodes
(dQ = dV x C).
The charge stored on the capacitor is Q = V x C. When the chamber is exposed to
radiation, electrical charge dQ is collected by the electrodes, discharging the
capacitor.
A device that records total charge collected over a period of time is the pocket
dosimeter.
Problems with ion-chambers
A basic problem with ionization chambers is that they are quite
inefficient as detectors for x and gamma-rays.
Only a very small percentage (less than 1percent) of X- or gamma
rays passing through the chamber actually interact with and cause
ionization of air molecules.
Two additional problems with ionization chambers should be noted.
The first is that for x and gamma- rays, their response changes with
photon energy because photon absorption in the gas volume

and the detection efficiency and relative penetration of photons
through the chamber walls both are energy-dependent processes
Proportional Counter
In proportional region
the Secondary
ionization causes the
avalanche to occur.
Higher output is
achieved.
Can still tell different
radiations from their
energy
Gas Multiplication and Avalanche in Proportional Detector
anode
cathode
an electron
The avalanche will stop after the electric field reduced to a threshold
caused by the space charge of accumulated positive ions in the gas.
Choice of Geometry
d
V
d = ) ( c
) / ln(
) (
a b r
V
r = c
++++++++++++++
------------------
+
--
Uses of a Proportional Detector
Proportional counter-ion chamber used for
Detection and spectroscopy of low energy photons
Neutron detectors
Operated at a lower voltage than a Geiger-Mueller detector
Proportional Gas-filled Detectors
Increasing voltage
reduces ion-electron
recombination
Each ion-electron
pair collected
Avalanches start.
Gas multiplication
linear with applied
voltage Large number of
positive charges
reduce applied
electric field
Geometry of Proportional Counters
Cylindrical geometry allows for a large applied electric field. E is very large
near r = a where electrons are collected. Cannot achieve similar fields with
parallel plate construction.

E r
( )
=
V
r ln
b
a
|
\

|
.
|
E = electric field
V = applied voltage
r = distance from anode
a = anode wire radius
b = cathode inner radius
Most charge
multiplication occurs
near anode wire
regardless of the location
where original ion-
electron pair is formed
Design Features
High voltage applied at anode wire
Diameter must be consistent to maintain proportional counting (constant E)
Easier for thicker wire (which drops possible E)
Must balance contradictory design needs
Vacuum
seal
Field tube-large diameter wire gives low E and no gas multiplication. This avoids
geometry effects near ends of detector and keeps charge amplification proportional
throughout (could also have constant diameter wire with lower potential).
Active volume
Grounded cathode
Thin window
design for low
energy particle
detection
Windowless proportional counters
Sample can be introduced into chamber. Valuable for low energy particle
detection or for alpha counting where significant energy might be lost through
window.
Solid angle of close to 2t exposed to proportional gas
Detector must be purged of air after sample is introduced
Longer lifetime than sealed detectors because loss of fill-gas can end
usefullness of a sealed detector.
P-10 which is 90% Ar and 10% methane is a commonly used fill gas for gamma
detectors. Fill gas must not attach to electrons. Heavier inert gas better for high
efficiency gamma detection.
Pulse shapes
Most ions and electrons are
formed near anode. Positive
ion drift is fast near anode
Pulse build up slows as
positive ions move into
smaller field zone of detector
Fast output pulses are promoted by using low gas pressure, high applied
voltage, and small anode wires (larger applied field)
Alpha and Beta counting
Because of differences in range, only a
fraction of a betas energy is deposited
in the gas where all of the alpha energy
is deposited in the gas.
Leads to two plateaus when
generating a counting curve
Can be used to eliminate beta
events sent to counting circuit
Graph assumes equal energy particles
Gas multiplication by Avalanche
To help visualize the avalanche
formation in the neighborhood of the
wire surface, Figure shows results
obtained from a Monte Carlo
modeling of the electron
multiplication and diffusion
processes;
It was assumed that a single free
electron drifted into the vicinity of
the wire.
The resulting avalanche is confined
to a small distance along the length
of the wire equivalent to only several
times its diameter.
As a consequence, methods for
sensing its position along the wire
can accurately measure the axial
position of the incident electron.
Types of Geiger-Mueller (GM) Tubes
Geiger-Mueller (GM) Tube
Entire avalanche full ionization
Cannot still tell different radiations
Quenching is necessary
Electrical quenching : reduce
electrical voltage after avalanche
Chemical quenching : add a little
halogen gas

Uses of GM Tubes
Geiger-Mueller detector
Simple, low cost, easy to
operate
Pulse type counter that
records number of radiation
events
All energy information is
lost-no ability to do
spectroscopy
Dead time greatly exceeds
any other commonly used
radiation detector
Charge pulse
Geiger-Mueller detector
Employs gas multiplication to greatly increase the charge represented
by the original ion pairs formed by the radiation
At a specific large electric field, one charge avalanche creates a second,
ultimately leading to a self-propagating chain reaction
At larger electric fields, the number of avalanches grows exponentially
until interactions between avalanches terminate the chain reaction
All pulses from a Geiger
tube are of the same
amplitude regardless of
the number of original
ion pairs
Charge pulse
Geiger-Mueller detector
The build-up of slowly moving positive charges around the positively
charged anode terminates the discharge by decreasing the electric field
Discharge would start again when positive ion hit cathode and regain
electrons
A quench gas is added to the detector that disassociates rather than freeing
an electron from the cathode (GM detector lifetime based on lifetime of
quench gas).
Charge collection
The shape of the output pulse collected varies based on the counting circuit
design
For RC=, all charge is collected. Fast rising slope corresponding to
collection of fast moving electrons. Slower rising slope corresponding
to collection of slow moving positive ions.
Typical time constants are chosen small enough to ignore the
contribution of the positive ions. Since all Geiger discharges are
approximately uniform in size and shape, all pulses are attenuated by
the same fraction in the shaping process and output pulses will remain
almost of one amplitude.
Resolving Time
t
0
0
1 R
R
R

=
R : True counting rate
R
0
: Observed counting rate
t : Resolving time
Dead time
The slow moving positive charge ensures a considerable time in which a new
pulse could not be detected due to positive space charge effects near anode

The size of secondary pulses depend on the state of the initial discharge since
finite pre-existing + space charge will allow discharge termination at lower E

The ultimate pulse size accepted as a count is determined by the counting circuit.
Note polarity!
Note dead time is defined
as time until a second
pulse, regardless of
height, can be detected.

Recovery time is
the time interval that must
elapse after a pulse has
occurred before a full-size
pulse can again occur.
Counting Plateau
At low voltage, pulse
height is below
discrimination level and no
counts detected
At higher voltage, all
counts recorded (giving
counting plateau)
Plateau is not actually flat
Pulses during recovery
Inadequate quench
Areas of reduced electric
field (corners, end of
tube)
Do not operate here Pulses during recovery
Typical design
At low voltage, pulse height is below discrimination level and no counts
detected
At higher voltage, all counts recorded (giving counting plateau)
Output of GM tube detector: Count rate
Thinner window required for alpha counting due to shorter range
Window must maintain a differential pressure (keep out air)
Typical electronics
C
s
=capacitance of tube
and associated wiring
C
c
= coupling capacitor to block high voltage from
counting circuit while transmitting pulse
Preamp typically not
needed because of large
signal
Counting Efficiency
Charged particles (alpha, beta) - all particles that enter detector active
volume triggers full discharge. Efficiency determined by probability that
incident particle penetrates window without absorption or backscatter.

Neutrons-small interaction probability of interaction with typical gas. Could
use a gas with a large absorption cross section. Neutron detectors are
typically proportional counters.

Gamma-interacts with cathode (counter
wall). Secondary electron emitted triggers
pulse.
Efficiency determined by:
Probability of gamma interaction with
counter wall
Probability that electrons escapes
metal wall and reaches gas.
Fill & Quench gases
Geiger counters must be prevented to have excessive multiple pulsing.
External quenching consists of some method for reducing the high voltage
applied to the tube, for a fixed time after each pulse, to a value that is too low
to support further gas multiplication.
Then, secondary avalanches cannot be formed and even if a free electron is
liberated at the cathode, it cannot cause another Geiger discharge.
It is much more common to prevent the possibility of multiple pulsing
through internal quenching, which is accomplished by adding a second
component called the quench gas to the primary fill gas.
It is chosen to have a lower ionization potential and a more complex
molecular structure than the primary gas component and is present with a
typical concentration of 5-10%.
These gases are to absorb UV photons. Also, the quench gas in a Geiger
counter serves to prevents multiple pulsing through the mechanism of charge
transfer collisions.