Structural Geology

GLY 4400 - Lecture 5 Force and Stress Normal and Shear Stress

Rocks and Force

Rocks constantly experience the force of gravity They may also experience a variety of other forces, including tectonic forces and forces associated with impact Previously, we saw that force is defined by the following equation:
F = mA where F is the force vector, m is mass, and A is the acceleration vector
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Responses to Force
Figure 3.2 in text

Rocks respond to applied forces in one of two ways:

A. Movement Newtonian mechanics B. Distortion continuum mechanics

Types of Force
Body forces
Fb m

Surface forces
Fs area

Definition of Stress
We have previously seen that stress is an internal force set up as the result of external forces acting on a body Stress is usually represented by the Greek letter sigma,
= F/Area

Subscripts are often attached to to add additional information

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Stress in Different Dimensions

In two dimensional problems, stress is a vector quantity, and is sometimes called traction In three dimensions, stress is a second-order tensor, which will be discussed shortly

Traction
Stress in an arbitrary direction may be resolved into components A. Normal stress, denoted n B. Shear stress, denoted s or (tau) Figure 3.3 in text

Resolution of the Stress Vector

Figure 3_4a illustrates the principle of stress resolution A plane face is ABCD in the drawing Note: The section through a cube implies a plane, i.e. two dimensions

Force and Stress

Figure 3.4a & b in text

A force, F, is applied along rib AB Line EF in the drawing is the trace of a plane which makes an angle with the top and bottom surfaces of ABCD The force can be resolved into components Fn perpendicular to the plane, and Fs parallel to the plane 9

Fn and Fs
= F/AB (Note: F = AB) Fn = F cos = AB cos Since AB = EF cos , Fn = EF cos2 Fs = F sin = AB sin = EF sin cos

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Trigonometry Identity
We can use the following trigonometric identity to simplify Fs
sin cos = (sin 2)

Fs = EF (sin 2)

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Normal and Shear Stress

n = Fn/EF = cos2
s = Fs/EF = (sin 2)

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Stress Vector Resolution

Thus, the stress vector acting on a plane can be resolved into vector components normal and parallel to the plane Their magnitudes vary as a function of the orientation of the plane

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Normal Force and Stress vs.

Plot of the normalized values of normal force and the normal stress versus theta The curves have a slightly different shape, but in both cases the normalized values decrease and go to zero at = 90
Figure 3.4c in text
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Shear Force and Stress vs.

The curves in this case are nearly identical until = 25, then the shear force increases faster than the shear stress After 45, the shear force continues to increase, but the shear stress again goes to zero at 90
Figure 3.4d in text
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Stress Ellipse
Figure 3. 5a shows a plane cut by four other planes (a through d) The stresses on each plane are plotted, and are perpendicular to their respective planes Since the body is at rest, every stress is opposed by an equal an opposite stress We can connect the endpoints of the two dimensional stress vectors with a smooth curve, generating the ellipse shown
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Stress Ellipsoid

If we were to draw similar ellipses in the two additional, mutually perpendicular, planes, we could then combine the data to generate a three dimensional ellipsoid, as shown in figure 3.5b This is known as the stress ellipsoid
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Principal Stresses
Ellipsoids are characterized by three principal axes In the stress ellipsoid, these axes are known as the principal stresses Each principal stress is a vector

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Stress Using Cartesian Coordinates

Stress can be visualized in another manner Using a standard three dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, and we picture a point cube, as shown in figure 3.6 We can resolve the stress acting on each face of the cube into three components
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Figure 3.6 in text

Stress Notation

The face normal to the x-axis has a component xx First subscript refers to the plane, in this case the one normal to the x-axis Second subscript refers to the component along axis x In addition, we have two shear stresses, xy and xz, which lie along the y and z axes within the plane under consideration
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Table of Stress Components

Doing the same for the other principal stress axes, we generate a table Stress on face normal to: In the direction of:

x
X

y xy yy

z xz yz

x y

xx yx

zx

zy

zz
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Stress Components
The normal stress components are xx, yy, and zz The shear stress components are xy, xz, yx, yz, zx, and zz

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Equivalence of Shear Stress Components

Since the object is at rest, three of the six shear stress components must be equivalent to the other three (otherwise the object would move)
xy = yx, xz = zx, and yz = zy

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Independent Stress Components

This leaves six independent components:
Stress on face normal to: In the direction of:

x
X

x
y

xx
xy xz

xy
yy yz

xz
yz zz
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Principal Stress Table

Stress on face normal to: In the direction of:

x
X

x
y

xx
0 0

0
yy 0

0
0 zz

Thus oriented, the axes are known as the principal axes of stress, and the planes perpendicular are the principal 25 planes of stress

Isotropic Stress
It is possible that the three principal stresses will be equal in magnitude If this condition is met, the stress is said to be isotropic The stress ellipsoid becomes a sphere

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Anisotropic Stress
When the principal stresses are unequal, they are said to be anisotropic We then introduce another convention:
1 2 3
1 is called the maximum principal stress 2 is the intermediate principal stress 3 is the minimum principal stress

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Types of Stress
General Triaxial Stress
1 > 2 > 3 0

Biaxial stress, with one axis at zero

1 > 0 > 3 or 1 > 2 > 0

Uniaxial tension
1 = 2 = 0; 3 < 0

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Uniaxial Stress
Uniaxial compression
2 = 3 = 0; 1 > 0

Hydrostatic or lithostatic pressure

1 = 2 = 3

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Gabriel Auguste Daubre

Daubre (1814-1896) was an early experimenter in many aspects of the geological sciences He taught mineralogy at the French School of Mines He introduced synthesis techniques and extended these to general experimental work
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Daubre Experiment
For example, Figure 3-7a shows a picture of wax placed between two wooden plates, an experiment first performed by Daubre He reported some of his results at the first International Geological Conference in 1878 (Paris)

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Diagram of Daubre Experiment

Plane AB is arbitrary, and it makes an angle with 3 We can make two other simplifying assumptions:
Line AB has unit length The plane represented by AB within the block has unit area
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Forces in Balance
The forces parallel and perpendicular to AB must balance
We resolve force z AB into the component of the force z BC (parallel to 1) along CD plus the component of the force z AC along CD (parallel to 3) Note that ACD =
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Resolving Forces
forceBC = 1cos (Force = stress C area) forceAC = 3sin AreaBC = 1 C (cos ) AreaAC = 1 C (sin )

On the AB surface, there is a normal stress, n and a shear stress, s

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Normal Stress
The normal stress is the same as the stress along CD:
n = 1cosCcos + 3sinCsin = 1cos2 + 3sin2

Since cos2 = (1 + cos2) and sin2 = (1 - cos2) we get

n = (1 + 3) + (1 - 3) C cos2
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Shear Stress
We resolve force 2 AB into the component of the force z BC along AB plus the component of the force z AC along AB
s = 1cosCsin - 3sinCcos = (1 - 3) sinCcos

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Simplification of Shear Stress

Substituting sinCcos = sin2 gives s = (1 - 3)sin2 The planes of maximum normal stress are at = 0E relative to 3, because cos2 = 1 at = 0E The planes of maximum shear stress are at 45E relative to 3, because sin2 = 1 at 45E
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