APPENDICULAR SKELETON

ENDOSKELETON OF VERTEBRATES

The Appendicular Skeleton

The appendicular skeleton includes:

Pectoral girdle Pelvic girdle Upper extremities Lower extremities

The appendicular skeleton functions primarily to facilitate movement

Fig. 9.4

Tetrapod Limb

Typical 4 limbs
Modified elements Lost 4 Lost 2 paddles

wings

Primarily a modification of the Rhipidistian fin

Recall:

Vp = Vg + Ve + Vgxe

Fitness

V = variation Resource use (ecology) p = phenotypic g = genotypic Behavior e = environmental & Performance
Morphology (anatomy)

Three main components

With respect to the pectoral and pelvic girdles:

Serially homologous 1. Propodium (= stylopodium) upper arm, upper leg 2. Epipodium (= zeugopodium) forearm, shin 3. Autopodium manus or pes (digits, and wrist and palm, or ankle and sole

Mesopodium Metapodium Phalanges

Fig. 9.12

Focus 9.2

Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle The pectoral or

shoulder girdle attaches the bones of the upper limbs to the axial skeleton Consists of scapula & clavicle Clavicle articulates with sternum (sternoclavicular joint) Clavicle articulates with scapula (acromioclavicular joint) Scapula held in place by muscle only Upper limb attached to pectoral girdle at

Clavicle (Collarbone)

S-shaped bone with two curves Extends from sternum to scapula above 1st rib Sternal & acromial extremities One of the most commonly fractured bones in the human body Fracture site is junction of curves

Anterior Surface of Scapula

Articulates with the clavicle and the humerus Subscapular fossa filled with muscle Coracoid process for muscle attachment

Posterior Surface of Scapula

Triangular flat bone found in upper back region Scapular spine ends as acromion process Glenoid cavity forms shoulder joint with head of humerus

Upper Extremity Upper extremity consists of 30

bones
Humerus within the arm Ulna & radius within the forearm Carpal bones within the wrist Metacarpal bones within the palm Phalanges in the fingers

Joints
Shoulder (glenohumeral), elbow, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, interphalangeal Shoulder dislocation is separation of the humerus from the glenoid cavity of the scapula

Shoulder Dislocation

Head of humerus slips out of glenoid cavity Closed reduction is term for slipping humerus back into place without surgery

Humerus: Proximal End Largest and longest bone of upper

extremity, part of shoulder joint, articulates with scapula Head Greater & lesser tubercles for muscle attachments Intertubercular sulcus or bicipital groove Shaft or body

Humerus: Distal End

Forms elbow joint with ulna and radius Capitulum

articulates with head of radius

Trochlea
articulation with ulna

Olecranon fossa
posterior depression for olecranon process of ulna

Medial & lateral epicondyles

attachment of forearm muscles

Ulna & Radius: Proximal End Ulna (on little finger side)
Trochlear notch articulates with humerus & radial notch with radius Olecranon process forms point of elbow

Radius (on thumb side)

Head articulates with capitulum of humerus & radial notch of ulna Tuberosity for muscle attachment

Ulna & Radius: Proximal End

Radius (on thumb side)

Head articulates with capitulum of humerus & radial notch of ulna Tuberosity for muscle attachment Ulnar notch articulates with ulna

Elbow Joint

Articulation of humerus with ulna and radius Ulna articulates with trochlea of humerus Radius articulates with capitulum of humerus Interosseous membrane between ulna & radius provides site for muscle attachment

Ulna and Radius: Distal End

Ulna
Styloid process provides attachment for ulnar collateral ligament Head separated from wrist joint by fibrocartilage disc

Radius
Forms wrist joint with scaphoid, lunate & triquetrum Forms distal radioulnar joint with head of ulna

8 Carpal Bones (Wrist)

Proximal row lateral to medial

Scaphoid: boat shaped Lunate: moon shaped Triquetrum: 3 corners Pisiform: pea shaped

Scared Lovers Try Positions That They Cant Handle

Distal row lateral to medial

Trapezium: four sided Trapezoid: four sided Capitate: large

Metacarpals and Phalanges Metacarpals

5 total: #1 proximal to thumb base, shaft, head knuckles (metacarpophalang eal joints)

Phalanges (Digits)
14 total: each is called phalanx proximal, middle, distal on each finger, except thumb base, shaft, head

Pelvic Girdle and Hip Bones

Pelvic girdle = two hip bones united at pubic symphysis articulate posteriorly with sacrum at sacroiliac joints Each hip bone (os coxa) = ilium, pubis, and ischium fuse after birth at acetabulum Bony pelvis = 2 hip bones, sacrum and coccyx

Ilium

Iliac crest and iliac spines for muscle attachment Iliac fossa for muscle attachment Gluteal lines indicating muscle attachment Sacroiliac joint at auricular surface & iliac tuberosity Greater sciatic notch for sciatic nerve

Ischium and Pubis

Ischium
Ischial spine & tuberosity Lesser sciatic notch Ramus

Pubis
Body Superior & inferior ramus Pubic symphysis is pad of fibrocartilage between 2 pubic bones

Female Pelvis Male Pelvis

Many differences between the two In particular, pubic arch in males is usually less than 90, whereas in females it is

Lower Extremity

Each lower limb = 30 bones

femur and patella within the thigh tibia & fibula within the leg tarsal bones in the foot metatarsals within the forefoot phalanges in the toes

Joints
hip, knee, ankle proximal & distal tibiofibular metatarsophalangeal

The femur or thighbone is the largest, heaviest, and strongest bone of the body It articulates with the hip bone and the tibia
Head articulates with acetabulum Medial & lateral condyles articulate with tibia

Femur

Neck is common fracture site Muscle attachments at greater & lesser trochanters, linea

Femur

Fovea capitis in the center of the head Medial epicondyles above the condyles Intercondylar fossa between the condyles

Patella

Triangula r sesamoid bone Apex & base Articular facets for the femur Increases

Tibia and Fibula

Tibia (Shinbone) Medial & larger bone of leg

Weight-bearing bone Head Lateral & medial condyles Intercondylar eminence Tibial tuberosity for patellar

Tibia and Fibula

Fibula Parallel and lateral to the tibia

Smaller than the tibia Not weight bearing Not part of the knee joint Muscle attachments only

Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Seven tarsal bones Phalanges constitute the ankle
constitute the ankle (tarsus) and share the weight associated with walking Five metatarsal bones are contained in the foot Fractures of the metatarsals are common among dancers, especially ballet dancers, and also among martial artists

Proximal

Tarsus (Ankle)

region of foot (contains 7 tarsal bones)

Talus = ankle bone (articulates with tibia & fibula) Calcaneus = heel bone Cuboid, navicular & 3 cuneiforms Metatarsal fractures occur when you drop something heavy on your foot

Metatarsus and Phalanges

Metatarsals

Midregion of the foot 5 metatarsals (#1 is most medial) Each with base, shaft and head

Phalanges
Distal portion of the foot Similar in number and arrangement to the hand Big toe is hallux

Function

Arches of the Foot

distribute body weight over foot yield & spring back when weight is lifted

Longitudinal arches along each side of foot Transverse arch across midfoot region
navicular, cuneiforms & bases of metatarsals

HOMOLOGY OF APPENDICULAR BONES

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

FORELIMB Humerus Radius Ulna Carpals Metacarpals Phallanges

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

HINDLIMB Femur Tibia Fibula Tarsals Metatarsals Phallanges

HOMOLOGY OF GIRDLES
PECTORAL GIRDLE
1.

PELVIC GIRDLE Ilia

Scapula * coracoid process

1.

2. Ischia 3. Pubis

2. Clavicle

I. GIRDLES
A.

PECTORAL GIRDLE - COMPOSITION: 1. Replacement Bones a. coracoid b. Scapula c. Suprascapula 2. Dermal Bones 4 bones of more a. clavicle b. large cleithrium c. small supracleitrium d. post temporal e. post cleithria (ganoid fishes)

VARIATION OF PECTORAL GIRDLE

1.

CHONDRICHTHYES - ventral coracoid - scapula - suprascapula

2. OSTEICHTHYES - suprascapula is absent - coracoid +scapula=coracoscapula

3. TETRAPODS
A.

AMPHIBIANS - girdle retained in dermal bones -components: a. 2 coracoid c. 2 suprascapula b. 2 scapula d. 1 epicoracoid

B. REPTILES - coracoids are fused to form one bone PROCORACOID

c. AVES - components: a. furcula -2 clavicles -1 interclavicle b.2 scapula c. 2 precoracoid D. MAMMALS - components: a. 2 clavicles b. 2 scapula (shoulder blade) - coracoid process - acromial process - glenoid fossa

II. PELVIC GIRDLES

VARIATION OF PELVIC GIRDLES 1. FISHES
- fusion of ishium and pubis forming IScHIO-PUBIC PLATE - (median pubic symphysis) 2. AMPHIBIANS - 2 Ilia - 1 sichium (ischiac sysmphysis) - 1 pubis (pubic symphysis)

3. REPTILES - 2 Ilia - sacral rib fused with the carapace - 2 ishia - 2 pubis 4. AVES - 2 Ilia (concave and convex area) - 2 pubis - 2 ischia - 2 foramens a. obturator foramen b. ilio-ischiac foramen fused to synsacrum

5. MAMMALS - 2 Ilia - 2 ischia - 2 pubis (os coxae, innominate bone, pelvic bone)

III. LIMBS
VARIATION OF FORELIMBS 1. AMPHIBIANS - 2 humerus - 2 radio-ulna (fused) - 2 rows of carpals a. proximal row * radiale, ulnare,centrale b. distal row * 3 ordinary fused carpals - phalanges : 2: 3: 3:2

2. REPTILES - different size and shape, diameter - addition increase in number - fusion - reduction in size 3. AVES - modified for flight - 2 Humerus - 2 radius - 2 ulna - 2 carpometacarpus - phalanges: 1:3:2

4. MAMMALS
2 humerus 2 radius 2 ulna 8 carpals a. proximal row * scaphoid * triquetral * lunate * pisiform b. distal row *trapezium *capitate * trapezoid * hamate * Phalanges : 2:3:3:3:3

II. HINDLIMB

FEMUR THIGH TIBIA AND FIBULA SHANK TARSALS - ANKLE METATARSALS SOLE PHALANGES DIGITS /TOES

VARIATION OF HINDLIMB
1.

AMPHIBIANS
Femur tibio-fibula proximal tarsals * astragalus *calcaneum - 2 ordinary tarsals fused - 5 metatarsals - phalanges : 1 :3:4:4:3 2 2 2

2. REPTILES - in sphenodons and lizards- tarsal bones are fused forming ASTRAGALOCALCANEUM 3.AVES - TIBIOTARSUS - TARSOMETATARSUS - METATARSALS - 4 DIGITS WITH CLAWS, KNEE CAP

3. MAMMALS - 2 FEMUR - 2 TIBIA - 2 FIBULA - 7 TARSALS A. PROXIMAL - calcaneum,talus,navicular B. DISTAL - 3 cunieforms, 1 cuboid - 5 metatarsals - phalanges: 2:3:3:3:3

ADAPTATION OF MANUS
1. 2. 3.

WRIST PALM DIGITS FUNCTIONS:

For grasping For swift-footedness

Digitigrade Plantigrade

* unguligrade

For flight wings For swimming flippers for life in the ocean FINS - stabilizers - steering device for undulation

TYPES OF FINS
1.

PAIRED FINS
1.A BONY FISH A. PECTORAL FINS coracoscapula B. PELVIC FINS - ischio-pubic plate 1.B. CARTILAGINOUS FIS A. PECTORAL FINS coracoid,scapula, suprascapula B. PELVIC FINS - ischio-pubic plate

2. UNPAIRED FINS
A. ANAL FINS B.CAUDAL FINS C. MEDIAN DORSAL FINS A. ANTERIOR DORSAL FIN B. POSTERIOR DORSAL FIN

DIVERSITIES IN SKELETAL STRUCTURES OF PAIRED FINS

1. 2. 3. 4.

SPINY FINS LOBED FINS FINFOLD FINS FIN SPINE

VARIATION OF MEDIAN FINS 1. HETEROCERCAL -unidentical 2. HOMOCERCAL - identical 3. DIPHYCERCAL - symmetrical 4. HYPOCERCAL - directed downward

THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF FINS

1.

FIN FOLD HYPOTHESIS paired fins are derived from a pair of continuous fleshy folds of the lateral body wall analogous to the metapleural folds of amphioxus

2. GILL ARCH HYPOTHESIS (Gegenbaur) - pectoral and pelvic fins are modified gill arches and the skeleton within the fin is an expansion of gill rays 3. FIN SPINE HYPOTHESIS (Gregory and Raven) -in early acanthodians, pectoral and pelvic appendages were the largest of the series of lateral hollow spiny appendages -lateral extension of the trunk

LOCOMOTION OF LIMBLESS VERTEBRATES

1.

movement forming irregular loops 2. CONCERTIVE OR RECTILINEAR - move from place to place by gliding using the cervical ribs 3. SIDESWINDING - occupy territory or sandy dessert - rattlesnakes

SERPENTINE OR LATERAL UNDULATION