T 10A&B POWER PLANT PRACTICE

CONTENTS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. SECONDARY CELLS BATTERY CHARGING BATTERY CHARGERS CONVERTERS AND INVERTERS VOLTAGE STABILIZATION D C VOLTAGE REGULATOR

7. UN-INTERUPTED POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM 8. PHOTO VOLTAIC GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY 9. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS 10. POPWER SUPPLY ARRANGEMENTS 11. POWER SUPPLY LOAD CALCULATIONS

ELECTRICAL CELLS

TOPICS COVERED
1. Introduction. 2. Classification of cells. 3. Primary cells, Lead Acid Cell, construction, chemical reactions, Specifications. 4. VRLA cell/battery, Construction, uses, Specifications. 5. Capacity, Efficiency of a cell. 6. Defects in Lead Acid Cell.

7. Routine tests, maintenance, and battery room precautions. 8. Battery care. 9. Information to be furnished while indenting new cell/battery. 10. Battery charging, Types, Methods. 11. Procedure of keeping a battery in unused condition.

INTRODUCTION
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. It deals with different types of power supply systems like, Electrical cells / Battery Battery chargers Inverters & Converters Voltage stabilizers Un Interrupted Power Supplies (UPS) D.G. Set Power supply arrangements for Telecom Equipments etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF CELLS
Cells
Primary cells Leclanche Dry Cell, Lithium cell, etc. Secondary cells Non conventional Energy sources

Acid type cells

Eg. i) Lead Acid cell

(Solar cells, Fuel Alkaline type cells) cells i) Ni - Cd cell ii) Lithium cell iii) Ni-Iron iv) Lithium Ion

PRIMARY CELLS
The cells which cannot be recharged after discharge are known as Primary cells. They cannot be kept under cyclic operation. Examples: Leclanche Dry Cell, Lithium cell, etc.

SECONDARY CELLS
The cells which can be recharged by passing D.C. current through them and the original condition of chemicals are regained are called as Secondary cells. e.g. Lead Acid Cell, Nickel Cadmium Cell, Lithium Ion cell, etc.

LEAD ACID CELL

LEAD ACID CELL CONSTRUCTION

PARTS OF LEAD ACID CELL

Container It is made from hard rubber or PPCP material. It holds all the parts of cell. Top cover It is also made from the same material as above. It covers the top portion of the cell and holds Vent plug & terminals are comes out of the cell. Bottom block It is also made from the hard rubber or PPCP material. The element of +ve &-ve plates sits on this.

 Vent plug It is made from the plastic material or polystyrene. It provided with holes known as vent holes which permits gas to escape out. Float It is also made from plastic material. It having a Bulb & Stem portions. On the stem markings are provided to record the specific gravity of the electrolyte.

 Positive plates Grids structure is made from hard lead material & it holds the Lead dioxide (PbO2) material which is chocolate brown in colour. Negative plates Grid structure is made from hard lead material & it holds the Spongy Lead (Pb) material which is dark grey in colour.

 Positive terminal It is to connect to the adjacent cell/ equipment by bolt & nut. Negative terminal It is to connect to the adjacent cell / equipment by bolt & nut. Positive connecting rod It connects the positive group of plates to the +ve terminal Negative connecting rod It connects the negative group of plates to the ve terminal.

 Separators These are the thin sheet of insulating material kept between the plates to prevent the short circuit. These are made from PVC, glass mat, PPCP, celluloid etc. Electrolyte It a mixture of Concentrated Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4) at a give specific gravity. It act as a medium for flow of electrons by ionic process.

SPECIFICATIONS OF LEAD ACID CELL

Voltage of a fully charged cell - 2.1V Voltage when fully discharged 1.8 V Specific gravity when fully charged 1220 Specific gravity when fully discharge 1180. Specification number of battery graded distilled water IS 1069. Specification number of battery graded Con. Sulphuric acid IS 266.

VALVE REGULAED LEAD ACID CELL (SPECIFICATION NO.RDSO/SPN/TC/37/2000.)

CONSTRUCTION
The construction of this cell is same as conventional type. The grid material is Lead Calcium alloy due to its low self discharge& more conductivity. In this it is not necessary to add distilled water periodically & it is compensated by Gas recombination principle.

 It is completely sealed. Regulation of pressure inside the cell is by a valve which opens and closes automatically depending on the pressure inside the cell.

 1. 2.

Glass mat separators are used. Nominal voltage 2 V / cell Mode of charging : Float Mode 2.25 V / cell Boost Mode 3 V / cell

ADVANTAGES OF VRLA CELL

Maintenance free. Safe & Reliable. Easy to install. Compact and light in weight. No spilling of electrolyte during transportation. No separate room is required due to complete sealing.

 Longer service life. Ideally suited for deep discharges. Very low self discharge of 0.5 to 1% of capacity per week. Can be installed in horizontal direction without any leakage of electrolyte. No acid proof flooring is required by virtue of their construction. No post corrosion as there is no acid mist.Operating temperature is wider (40C to +55C).

USES OF VRLA CELL / BATTERY

Back up power supply for electronic equipments. Remote area power supplies. Un-interrupted power supply systems. Integrated power supply systems. Portable power tools.

SPECIFICATIONS
1. 2. 3. 4. i) ii) Nominal voltage: 2V/Cell. End point voltage: 1.75V/Cell. Type of separators used: Glass mat. Mode of charging: Float mode 2.25V/Cell (for 16 Hours) Boost mode 3V/Cell and charging current should be limited to 20% of its AH capacity.

5) Material used for grids: Calcium alloy.

Cycle life at 25C(77F) 1200 cycles at 80% depth of discharge. 2000 cycles at 50% depth of discharge. 4000 cycles at 20% depth of discharge. 6) Float life at 25C 20 years design life on full float with recommended charging method. 7) Operating temperature: -20C to +55C.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN LEAD ACID CELL

During discharging state: At positive plates,
PbO2 +2H +H2So4PbSo4 +2H2O

At Negative plates,
Pb + So4 Pb So4

CHANGES DURING DISCHARGING

Both anode & Cathode become PbSO4. Due to formation of water specific gravity of the electrolyte decreases. Voltage of the cell decreases. The cell gives out energy.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN LEAD ACID CELL

During charging state: At positive plates, PbSo4 +SO4 +2H2O PbO2 +2H2So4 At Negative plates, Pb So4 +H2 Pb + H2So4
During gassing: H2O + So4 H2So4 + O

Complete reaction; Pb(s) + Pbo2(s) + 2H2So4(aq)

2PbSo4(s) + 2H2O (l)

CHANGES DURING CHARGING

The anode becomes dark chocolate brown in co lour (PbO2) and cathode becomes gray metallic lead (Pb). Due to consumption of water, specific gravity of electrolyte is increased. There is rise in voltage.

CAPACITY
Definition: It is the ability of a fully charged battery to deliver a specified quantity of electricity at a given rate (amperes) over a definite period of time. Its unit is Ampere Hour (AH). It is given at Hours rating. Example: 200AH 10H.

 It depends on the following factors, 1. Discharge Rate. 2. Design and dimensions of plates. 3. Quantity and specific gravity of Electrolyte. 4. Temperature. 5. Plate spacing. 6. Active material weight. 7. Grid alloy. 8. Age.

EFFICIENCY OF A CELL
The efficiency of a secondary battery is defined as the ratio of output of a cell or battery to the input required to restore the initial state of charge under specified conditions of temperature, current rate and final voltage. Generally, the efficiency is expressed in three ways:1. Ampere-hour efficiency. 2. Volt efficiency. 3. Watt-hour efficiency.

AMPERE-HOUR EFFICIENCY
It is the ratio of the ampere-hours output to the ampere-hours of the recharge. For a full capacity battery, an ampere-hour efficiency between 85 and 90 is expected. The ampere hour loss is due to gassing & local action. ampere-hour efficiency can be increased by controlling the charging current.

VOLT EFFICIENCY
It is the ratio of the average voltage during the discharge to the average voltage during the recharge. This will be reduced, if the rates of charge and discharge are comparatively high. It will also be reduced at low temperatures. Under the commercial service conditions, a volt efficiency of about 85 may be expected.

WATT-HOUR EFFICIENCY
Watt-hour efficiency is the ratio of the watt hours output to the watt hours of the recharge. This is sometimes assumed to be the product of the ampere-hour efficiency and the volt efficiency. In many cases this may be sufficiently accurate. Under commercial service conditions, watt hour efficiency of about 75 may be expected.

TEMPERATURE CORRECTION OF ELECTROLYTE

The Sp. gravity of Electrolyte on the hydrometer should be corrected to read to 27 deg. C. Specific gravity is inversely proportional to temperature. Corrective factor is 0.0007 for each degree centigrade. Hence, the correction should, be made as follows For every 1 deg C above 27 deg C subtract 0.0007 to the Sp. gravity as read on the hydrometer. Similarly, for every 1 deg. C below 27C, add 0.0007 from the Sp. Gr. as read on the Hydrometer.

 Example: Sp. gravity read from hydrometer is : 1.200 The temperature is 28 deg. C. The corrected Sp.Gr. is 1.200 - .0007 = 1.1993

DEFECTS IN LEAD ACID CELL

DEFECTS IN LEAD ACID CELL

Sulphation

Buckling Shedding Internal short circuit Reverse Voltage of cells Open Circuit Temperature Troubles

SULPHATION
Indication: Slight white patches will be noted on the plates. White patches cannot be observed on plates as container is not transparent, white patches are observed on terminals The indication is loss of capacity.

 Cause: Excessive discharge Due to keeping the cell in a discharged condition for a long period Due to impurities in the water or acid Exposure of plates due to low level of electrolyte.

 Treatment: If slight, charge at 1/3rd of the normal rate, till the cell deliver gas freely. Discharge at the same rate. Repeat the cycle till the voltage of the cell reaches 2.35 on charge and specific gravity is as per manufacturer's rating. If the plates are visible, ensure that there are no white patches. If severe, pour out the electrolyte, fill with fresh electrolyte recharge.

BUCKLING
Indication: The plates become saucer shape or cup like with twisted or bulged ends tending to touch or touching the sides of the container or adjacent plates.

 Cause: Excessive discharge or charge, bad sulphation. Treatment: If not very badly bent, the plates can be removed, straightened in a vice or press. If very badly bent, they should be replaced.

SHEDDING
Indication: Slight loss in capacity or short circuit in the case of very severe shedding. Cause: Due to excessive gassing, thereby dislodging peroxide paste from the grids or due to sulphation. Treatment: Replace cell if severe, otherwise give slight charge at low rate.

INTERNAL SHORT CIRCUIT

Indication: The cell will be warm even when idle, specific gravity and voltage will be low immediately after charge. There will be no gassing. Cause: Due to fallen pieces of hard sulphate, bending or treeing, high degree of sulphation or sludge. Treatment: If not very badly bent, the plates can be removed, straightened in a vice or press. If very badly bent they should be replaced. Fallen pieces should be removed. Excess sulphation or sludge, treatment as in sludge.

REVERSE VOLTAGE OF CELLS

Indication: The positive and negative terminals will show opposite polarity. Cause: This is due to defective cell in a battery, which got discharged already when the others are being discharged. As the discharge, continues the run down cell adds nothing to output but gets charged in the wrong direction by the main discharge current passing through it.

 This results in the positive plate being partially converted into spongy lead and the negative plate into lead peroxide. This causes a reverse voltage and acts in the opposite direction to the main battery emf. Treatment: Remove the cause of defect and give slight charge. Remove the discharged cell.

OPEN CIRCUIT
Indication: No EMF at the output terminal of the cell. Cause: Loose connections of connecting strap or corroded terminals, or break in terminals. Treatment: Check all connections, examine for loose joints at clamps and connecting bars. Clean terminals with sand paper and smear Vaseline.

TEMPERATURE TROUBLE
Indication: Temperature rises even for very slow rates of charging. Cause: Due to bad location, proximity to any heated element, shedding, buckling or defective separation. Treatment: Examine for the causes given and remove the cause.

PREVENTIVE MEASRES TO OVERCOME DEFECTS

1. Avoid excessive discharging, 2. Dont do excessive charging, 3. Dont keep the cells/battery in discharged condition not more than 2 to 3 days, 4. Dont draw more than normal current, 5. To compensate the evaporation of electrolyte during summer, add distilled water more frequently, 6. Observe the cell container during maintenance for breakage or leakage,

Use only tools with insulated handles, 8. Dont place metal objects on the top of the battery, 9. Do not allow Lead pieces, coins, nuts, washers etc. into the battery, 10 Keep flames away from battery room to avoid explosion of battery, 11. To keep battery idle, after charging put it under trickle charging, 12. Do not the electrolyte temperature beyond 50C during charging.
7.

ROUTINE TESTS

THE ROUTINE TESTS

There are three types of tests to be carried out during routine maintenance. They are, 1. Measurement of Specific gravity. 2. Measurement of Voltage of each cell,. 3. Adjusting the level of electrolyte above the plates by adding distilled water.

MAINTENANCE APPLIANCES
A small voltmeter preferably with two ranges, 5 Volts and 15 Volts. An ammeter preferably with three ranges, 5, 15 and 30 Amps. Syringe type Hydrometer Glass tubes 9" long and 1/4" dia. Thermometer preferably graduated in F Glass rod 1/2" dia 15" long

Glass or porcelain trough Glass funnel Glass tumbler Jar of distilled water Jar of Sulphuric Acid

BATTERY MAINTENANCE AND BATTERY CARE

MAINTENANCE PRECAUTIONS OF BATTERY

1. Top-up the cells with battery graded pure distilled water (IS 1069) once in s week or more frequently in summer. 2. Record the specific gravity, voltage & electrolyte temperature of pilot cells every day and all the cells once in a week. 3. The terminals and connections should be checked regularly, replace if required.

4. Clean the terminals and coat with petroleum jelly as necessary. 5. Keep electrical connections always tight. 6. Do not exceed the electrolyte temperature beyond 50C during charging. 7. Attend the week cells without delay.

BATTERY CARE
DOS 1.Unload the batteries carefully and place them upright on the floor in single tier. 2.Store the batteries in a cool and dry location. 3.Charge the batteries within six months if they are under storage. 4.Unpack the batteries as per the unpacking instructions. 5.Install the batteries in a cool and dry location. 6.Keep the battery area clean and dry.

7. Monitor the charge and the float voltages of the charger at monthly intervals and adjust if required. 8.Check the tightness of all the electrical connections at monthly intervals. 9.Check compatibility of the charger before commissioning the battery.

10. Maintain monthly service record as per enclosed format. 11. Provide adequate ventilation and illumination. 12. Ensure the cell orientation & connections are as per the General arrangement Drawing.

 DONTS 1. Do not expose the packed batteries to rain. 2. Do not expose the packed batteries to sunlight. 3. Do not exceed the storage period without charging the batteries. 4. Do not install the batteries in rooms with varying temperature pockets due to sunlight or ventilation ducts. 5. Do not short-circuit the battery or cells during assembly.

6. Do not charge the batteries in sealed cubicles. 7. Do not mix batteries of different types or makes. 8. Do not make tap connections. 9. Do not tamper with the cell vents. 10. Do not keep the batteries in discharged condition.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Do not touch uninsulated battery connectors or terminals. 2. Isolate the battery from the charger while working on the battery. 3. All tools used for installation should be insulated to avoid accidental shorting of connections. 4. Ensure that connections are made as per general arrangement drawing enclosed.

5. Do not attempt to move the installed battery without removing the connectors. 6. Do not expose the battery to open flame or sparks. 7. Keep the battery clean and dry. 8. Incase of accidental contact with acid, wash the affected area with a continuous flow of water for 15 min., and consult a doctor immediately. 9. Do not install batteries in a sealed cabinet or enclosure since explosive gases may be released under abnormal conditions. 10.Use a suitable lifting device in handling the battery

BATTERY INDENTING PROCEDUTE

INDENTING OF LEAD ACID CELLS or BATTERIES

While indenting the cells or batteries, applicable IS specification should be quoted. The indent should specify batteries manufactured by one of the reputed and RDSO approved firms. separators made of Micro-porous PVC or similar materials of adequate design, providing permanent highly porous insulating diaphragm. The manufacturer instruction card should be obtained with cell.

INFORMATION TO BE FURNISHED BY THE PURCHASER

a) Nominal Voltage. b) Capacity (in Ampere Hours at 10 Hr rate) of the batteries. c) Mono-block type of stackable single cell type. d) Number of cells per battery for stackable cells. e) Number of identical batteries required. f) The rate of charge and discharge at which the batteries are to work.

g) The proposed method of working that is,charge discharge, float working or standby, with or without trickle charging. h) Whether stands are required and if so details of layout and space available i) The proposed location of installation and ultimate consignee. j) Accessories and spares required, if any. k) Special conditions, if any.

BATTERY CHARGING
CHARGING METHODS

METHODS OF CHARGING
1. (i) (ii) 2. There are two principle methods adopted in charging batteries: Constant current method: Constant current is passed through the battery. There are two methods of constant current charging:Series method of charging Parallel method of charging Constant potential method: Keeping constant potential across the battery till the end of charging is called as constant potential method.

CONSTANT CURRENT METHOD SERIES METHOD OF CHARGING

In the series method, the current must be the same in all parts of the circuit. Batteries of different types and capacities requiring different charging currents cannot be charged by this method.

PARALLEL METHOD OF CHARGING

Figure illustrates a parallel charging arrangement. It is superior to series method, in that the switching arrangements allow batteries of different capacities to be charged at correct rates.

RATE OF CHARGE OF CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN CONSTANT CURRENT METHOD

CONSTANT POTENTIAL CHARGING

In this the supply is kept at a constant voltage averaging 2.5 to 2.6V per cell. The supply equipment is designed to supply a constant voltage of 7.5, 15 or 30V supplied on two copper bus bars as shown in figure.

TYPES OF CHARGING
Type of charging
1.Initial charging Given to new cell / Battery 2. Float charging Given to working cell / Battery 3. Boost charging Given to discharged cell / Battery to charge quickly

Method of Volt/Cell charging

Constant current Constant potential Constant potential 2.7Volts/Cell

Current
As per manufacturer or 4% of capacity

2.15Volts/Cell Capacity / 10

2.4 Volts/Cell

Capacity / 10

4. Trickle charging Given to a fully charged cell / Battery

Constant potential 2.25-2.3 Volts / cell

1 mA / AH

5. Equalizing Constant potential 2.06-2.18 Volts / charging. Given cell to correct any inequalities of sp.Gr amoung the cells.

Capacity / 50

6. Normal charging

Constant potential 2.15 Volts / cell

Capacity / 10

INITIAL CHARGING
STEPS DURING INITIAL CHARGING:
1. Collecting of information from the manufacturer. 2. Procuring the materials and tools. 3. Preparation of required amount of electrolyte at required specific gravity. 4. Cleaning & arranging of cells.

5. Filling of electrolyte into the cells. 6. Interconnecting the cells. 7. Installing the battery charger at convenient place. 8. Connect the charger terminals to the battery. 9. Switch ON the charger by keeping the potentio meter at 0 position.

10. Slowly adjust the current to required value and continue charging. 11. Note down the stating time of charging, voltage, Sp.Gr, temperature of electrolyte at every 8 Hours. 12. Add electrolyte if level falls down during charging. 13. Keep the current constant during charging.

14. If temperature goes beyond 45C decrease the current rate or stop charging only if 50% of charging is over. 15. At the end of charging the cell starts gassing freely and the voltage will reach the final value 2.50 to 2.55 V / cell, and the specific gravity to 1.2100.005.

16. Gassing indicates end of charging. Stop charging only when the specific gravities of all the cells constant for three consecutive hours. 17. Equalize the specific gravities of all the cells to the specified value. 18. Again start charging, and continue up to three hours during which readings should not change. 19. Stop charging.

20.Connect the battery to a load, and discharge until any one of the cell voltage falls to1.85 V and Sp.Gr.1.180. 21. Stop discharging and connect it to charger again and charge at normal rate. 22. Continue Discharging and Charging for 2 or3 times to get full capacity.

PRECAUTIONS DURING INITIAL CHARGING

Add only electrolyte during initial charging. The temperature of the cell should not go beyond 45C during charging. Do not stop charging until 50% of charging is over.

FLOAT CHARGING
It is a system in which the battery is connected in parallel to the charger or DC source and load. The correct float charger current is automatically controlled by maintaining the correct float voltage across battery terminals. The voltage of the system is closely regulated to 2.15V to 2.20 volts per cell. The life of the battery is prolonged because it is not subjected to any charge/discharge cycle.

TRICKLE CHARGING
This is given to batteries used in emergencies. The battery is maintained in charged condition by trickle charging at 2.25 to 2.30 V/Cell & approximately 1 mA per A.H. at the rated 10 Hour capacity of the battery.

FLOAT TRICKLE WORKING

The battery is connected in parallel to the load and the source. The voltage of the system is regulated to 2.15V volts per cell as it was with trickle charging. When A.C mains fails the battery automatically discharges into the load. The battery should be given a normal charge after the discharge and then put to float trickle. The method eliminates the necessity of more frequent equalizing charges and is suitable where equipment itself can withstand higher voltages without any harm.

EQUALIZING CHARGE
A periodical charge given to the battery to correct any inequalities of Sp.Gr. among cells developed during service. This also assures that the maximum capacity is available when needed. An equalising charge is given at a rate of 10 Hr.Cap/50. However, it can also be at the finishing rate or less, done after a regular charge until the Sp.Gr. of all cells stop increasing for a period of 3 or 4 hours.

BOOST CHARGE
Given to a battery when it is neither possible nor practicable to give it a regular charge. This is usually a charge of higher rate and shorter duration in order to prevent over-discharging of the battery. It is given at rate 2.4V/ Cell.

NORMAL CHARGE
Done at two rates, the Start (high) rate being maintained till the cells reach 2.4 /volts per cell after which at the finishing (low) rate till the end of charge. The high rate is usually 14% and the finishing rate is 7% of the 10 hour capacity of the battery.

PROCEDURE FOR KEEPING THE BATTERIES IN UNUSED CONDITION

If the batteries are left idle without attention for more than 2 months, it will deteriorate and after a period of 6 months definitely ruin it. Two methods are given under for keeping the batteries in unused condition for long time. They are: 1. Periodic freshening charge. 2. Filling up with distilled water and storing.

ALKALIN CELLS & BATTERIES

CONTENTS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Introduction. Classification of cells. Nickle-Cadmium cells. Chemical reactions & Types. Construction & Applications. Dos & Donts. Precautions while handling cells.

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
The electrolyte in Alkaline Cells is basically an Alkali namely Potassium Hydroxide which acts as a passage for ions. It will not take part in chemical reaction during charging and discharging. The electrolyte specific gravity remains constant and it cannot be an indication for the state of the charge.

 The electrolyte resistance remains almost same during discharging. The discharged condition of the cell can only be known by voltage.

CLASSIFICATION OF ALKALINE CELLS

 There are mainly two types of Alkaline Cells: 1. Nickle Cadmium (Ni-Cd) Cells 2. Nickle Iron (Ni-Fe) Cells (These cells are not as popular as NiCd Cells).

NICKLE CADMIUM CELLS

CONSTRUCTION
Positive Material - Nickle Hydroxide - Ni(OH)2 Negative " - Cadmium " - Cd(OH)2 Electrolyte - Potassium Hydroxide - KOH Sp.Gr. 1.17 on charge. Separator Material - Non-woven synthetic fibre or plastic material or cloth. Container - Steel or stainless steel as the electrolyte used is non corrosive.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
2Ni(OH)2 + Cd (OH)2 2 NiO OH + Cd + 2H20 It can be observed from the above equation that electrolyte is not figuring in chemical reactions. It can be observed from the above equation that electrolyte is not figuring in chemical reactions.

TYPES OF Ni- Cd CELLS

There are basically two types of Ni-Cd Batteries/Cells distinguished by the construction of the electrodes. 1) Sintered Plate type. 2) Pocket Plate type. Again the Sintered Plate type are devided into two types: i) Rectangular Vented Type ii) Sealed Cylindrical Type

POCKET PLATE NICKEL CADMIUM CELLS (RECTANGULAR VENTED)

 In the case of Pocket Plate Ni-Cd Cells, the basic active materials, namely chemicals of Nickel and Cadmium are made externally. These powders are then packed into pockets of Nickel plated steel perforated strips. These strips are cut to the required size depending on the width of the plate and the horizontal strips are held together by means of side clips to form the plates of required length.

 These plates are welded or bonded together as in the case of sintered plate cell to the electrodes. The separator used in this case could be a cloth or plastic material.

CONSTRUCTION AND APPLICATIONS

SEALED CYLINDRICAL CELLS

 The sealed cylindrical cells are also sintered plate type cells. Electrodes used in these cells are also made in the same way as the electrodes in the rectangular cells except that the electrode is made much thinner to enable a set of positive and negative plates separated by a separator cloth to be wound tightly to go into the nickel plated sealed cylindrical container.

 The positive electrode is welded to the top lid and negative to the body of the cell with an insulation between them. Finally the cell is crimped at the top to avoid leakage of the electrolyte. Applications: In all the applications where the cells/batteries could be located outside, The rectangular vented cells could be used with the only constraint that the cells should be mounted only in vertical orientation as otherwise the electrolyte might spill out.

 On account of the low internal resistance and also due to the low thickness of the plates of the sintered plate cells compared to pocket plate cells. 4 Ah and 1 Ah Ni-Cd Cells are now being used in place of 6 I Cells in S & T Installations.

RECHARGEABLE SEALED CYLINDRICAL NICKEL CADMIUM CELLS

1) The cell has a leak proof casing with no trouble of replenishing electrolyte, i.e., maintenance free. 2) The internal resistance of the Cell being very low, it is fit for high rate of discharging. 3) The cell is hermetically sealed and can be freely mounted in any direction. 4) The cell is mechanically rigid as the container is made of steel.

5) The cell offers a stable performance as a DC Power Source, as voltage fluctuations during most part of its discharge is nominal. 6) The cell withstands repeated cycles of charging and discharging as many times as 500 to 2000. Hence, it is highly economical. 7) The cell comes in a Compact, Light Weight design. 8) The cell operates over a wide range of temperatures i.e., -20 C to +55C. 9) Quick charging facility available.

CHARGING METHODS

CHARGING METHODS
Generally these cells are to be charged with constant current (DC). A typical circuit diagram of constant current charging is indicated. Trickle charging is recommended when a fully charged cell is kept idle for long periods in order to keep the cell in full state of charge. This is necessary to make up the losses due to self discharge during storage. This is done by a continuous charge at a very low current.

DOS AND DONTS

Dos & Donts

It is recommended that the battery room be provided separately from the circuits of the equipment. Contact terminals of the battery holder must be made of nickel plated steel or nickel clad copper. The battery room should be located away from heat generating part of equipment. Do not disassemble the cells. The electrolyte will hurt the skin and damage cloths.

 Handle the cells carefully to avoid short circuiting which may cause burns or fire. Do not throw the cell into a fire. It may sometimes explode. Do not connect different types of cells together and also avoid connecting old and new cells together.

PRECAUTIONS WHILE HANDLING

CHARGING: Be careful not to effect reverse charging by accident. Positive output terminal from the DC power supply should be connected to positive terminal of the cell/battery and negative output to the negative terminal. Avoid parallel connection of cells. Avoid using constant voltage charging of the cells. Do not charge the cell using charge current more than specified. Be sure to conduct charging within a temperature range of 0 to 45C.

 DISCHARGING: Be sure to conduct discharging within 20 C to +55 C. Normal cut off voltage per cell is 1.0V. Avoid discharging below this limit. Repetition of over discharging will result in service life reduction and cause the leakage of electrolyte. Do not discharge the cell with currents more than 3 CmA continuously and more than 5 CmA instantaneously.

 STORAGE: The cells have to be kept in noncorrosive, gas free, dry place preferably within ambient temperature of -20oC to + 55oC It is recommended to discharge the cell before storing for long periods. RDSO has specified sealed cylindrical Ni-Cd Cells under fixed serial No.IRS:TC 53-1991.

BATTERY CHARGERS

CONTENTS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Introduction. Simple battery charger. Double circuit battery charger. SCR controlled battery charger. Auto-Manual battery charger. Technical specifications of battery charger. Tests on battery chargers.

CLASSIFICATION OF BATTERY CHARGERS

CLASSIFICATION
A system in which D.C. voltage is dropped to the required value or AC is converted to the required D.C. value to charge the secondary battery is called a Battery Charger System.

PARTS OF BATTERY CHARGER

Mains transformer To step down the mains ac voltage. Rectifier circuit To convert AC to DC. Filter circuit To remove the ripple component. Regulating circuit Regulating the DC voltage at required value. Protective devices To protect from high voltage and currents. Other components Like Indicating meters, rotary switches, terminals etc.

SIMPLE BATTERY CHARGER

CONSTRUCTION
It consists of a step down transformer Tx. Step down the 230VAC to 24V AC. It is fed to the input of a bridge rectifier through a rotary switch. Output of the rectifier is fed to the filter circuit.

 The smoothing filter is indicated by L1C1, L2C2 in C1 and C2 are electrolytic condensers the capacity of which may vary from 100 MFD to 3000 MFD. Each stage may be considered as a potential divider for the next stage. Additional impedance is, therefore, introduced to reduce the change in the charging current, this impedance is known as 'Ballast'. RB is the ballast resistance as shown in figure. Ballast impedance can be either resistive or choke ballast.

DOUBLE CIRCUIT BATTERY CHARGER

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

DESCRIPTION
Each circuit is suitable for charging batteries from 6 to 72V at 10 amps. Each circuit is having a voltage selector switch S1 and S4, a current selector switch S2 and S5. Both the circuits are controlled by mains OFF/L/H switch S3. The charger is provided with two ammeters and a mains 'ON' lamp. Two sets of output terminals + and & Protection fuses are on the reverse.

FOR SINGLE CIRCUIT OPERATION

Place S3 in 'OFF'. Place S1 or S4 in respective battery voltage position. Switch 'ON' mains. Put S3 in low and adjust S2 or S5 till desired current is obtained (10 Amp. max). If full charging current is not obtained, place S2 or S5 in position 1, S3 on high and again adjust S2 or S5 for desired current.

FOR PARALLEL CONNECTION

Sequence of operation similar, but switches S1, S4 and S2, S5 to be so adjusted that both the ammeters read the same amount of current. The total current is the sum of the two meter readings. Precautions: 1) Charging current should not exceed 10 amps for each circuit.

2) Fuses should never be wired with higher gauge of wire. 3) While switching '' always proceed with S3 in lower battery voltage positions i.e., for 24V battery, position should be 12 to 24. 3) After completion of charge the sequence of operation should be as shown. S1 or S4 to position 6 to 12V, S2 or S5 in position S1 and S3 in off. Then only the charging leads must be disconnected.

SCR CONTROLLED BATTERY CHARGER

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

 This type of Charger uses SCRs to reduce the rate of charge as the battery voltage rises, until the charging current automatically ceases when the battery reaches a predetermined value. When the battery voltage is low, each half cycle of mains input delivers current from the secondary of the transformer to the battery via the Silicon controlled rectifier, SCR1 because this SCR is turned 'ON' at its gate via R1 and the Diode D3.

 As charging proceeds, the battery voltage rises until the potential at the slider of the potentiometer, RV, exceeds the Zener Voltage of ZD, causing it to conduct. The current through ZD into the gate of the other SCR., SCR2, Switches that one 'ON'. SCR2 does not have to carry heavy charging current, it can, therefore, be a small one with a low current rating. As the battery voltage rises under charge, the point at which the half cycle SCR2 conducts comes earlier and earlier, until eventually it takes place before SCR1 has had a chance to turn 'ON'.

 With SCR2 conducting, the junction of R1-R2 is only just above ground, so that SCR1 is unable to switch 'ON' and charging ceases. The battery voltage at which this charge limiting occurs is set by RV. If the battery voltage falls, charging will restart. So making the circuit suitable for these uses where a battery is called upon to provide high rate intermittent, short discharges and is left across the charger continuously.

AUTO/MANUAL BATTTERY FRONT VIEW

CONTROLS
Input double pole ON/OFF rotary switch(SW1) Auto/Manual Selector Switch(SW2) Manual Mode Output voltage selector switch(SW3) Total current/Battery current selector switch(SW4) Alarm reset Switch(SW5)

METERS & FUSES

METERS: DC Output Volt meter DC Output Ammeter FUSES: AC Input HRC fuse DC Output HRC fuse SPECIAL FEATURE: charger fail condition is indicated with flasher LED and AUDIO ALARM. Automatic change over from float to boost mode and vice versa by sensing battery current.

INDICATIONS
Mains ON Auto Float Mode Auto Boost Mode Manual Mode N Cells N+1 Cells N+2 Cells Over Load Short circuit AC Out of range DC Under voltage Reverse polarity

AUTO/MANUAL BATTTERY CHARGER. IRS.S.86/2000

PARTS OF AUTO/MANUAL CHARGER

The schematic circuit diagram of battery charger consists of the following parts: Mains transformer. A half controlled full wave rectifier. An L.C. section filter. Control PCB.

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS
SW1- To switch on the AC supply to the charger. TR1- Mains transformer steps down the input voltage to the required AC output voltage . RLY1-It is used to improve working power factor to above 0.7. Half controlled Bridge rectifier- Step down the voltage to the required value. SW2 - to select Auto/Manual mode of operation.

 SH1- is used to sense the total charger output current. SH2- is used to sense the battery current. RLY2- is used for on battery reverse connection protection. TR-2- is used to get low voltage AC for generating DC power supplies for functioning to control circuit. TR -3 - is used to get low voltage AC used to indicate AC out of range indication and DC under voltage indication.

SW3- is used to select the output voltage in manual mode.

 The control circuit diagram is assembled on PCB1. It is having the following sections, +/-15V Power supplies:- The DC power supply required for the entire circuit is generated by it. This is regulated by IC regulators. ICS REG1 & REG2 operates ICs U2 to U7,operates on Auto Mode. ICS REG3 - Provide +15V DC for ICs U1 & U8, Operates at Manual Mode also.

 Pulse generation section:IC4 LM324 Quad operational Amplifier is used for pulse generation. Cell selector section. Float voltage adjustment& voltage Controller:The 3 pole 3 way switch in the PCB1 is used to select number of cell connection. Preset VR7 is used to adjust the float voltage from 2.0V to 2.3 V /Cell.

CONTROL CARD
Current limits & Automatic change over:ICU2 and ICU3 are used for current limit and automatic change over from FLOAT to BOOST and vice-versa. Output short circuit and DC over voltage protection:ICU5 is used for short circuit and over voltage protection.ICU5 pin 7 will get DC Signal when output DC voltage goes beyond the set value. This signal will stop the pulse generation to switch off the charger.

 Reverse polarity protection section:ICU6 is used to Drop the relay RLY2 which opens the +ve connection to the battery from the charger during reverse polarity.

 Auto fail indication & Alarm:- ICU 6 is used to sense The Auto mode failure. ICU7 is used to get flashing indication and Audio alarm. AC out of range and DC under voltage indication:- ICU1 is used to get AC out of range indication and also Low DC voltage indication and Audio alarm. Power factor improvement:- ICU6 Pin 7 is used for giving Command signal to Relay RLY1 whenever the working PF comes down below the set level.

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
INPUT SUPPLY: 1. Nominal Voltage : 230V 2. Input supply range : 160 to270V 3. Input supply frequency :50Hz +/- 2Hz 4. Phase : Single Phase OUTPUT PARAMETERS: 1. Nominal float voltage : 2.15 V/Cell 2. Adjustment range : 2.0V to 2.3V/Cell

3. Output Voltage Regulation : +/-2.5%(0.05V/Cell) 4. Output ripple : Less than 5% of the output voltage 5. Boost mode output voltage : 2.4V/Cel 6. Rated current : X Amps 7. Current Limit adjustment : Continuously adjustable from 10to 100

CHARGER PERFORMANCE
1. No load current : Less than 10 2. Efficiency at rated input : Not less than 65 3. Operating Input Power Factor : Better than 0.7 4. Battery reverse leakage current when Input fails : Less than 50 mA

PROTECTION
1. Thyristors are protected against accidental over voltage. 2. Charger input provided with MOVR. 3. Protection against accidental failure of regulation. 4. DC Over voltage protection. 5. Output short circuit protection. 6. Battery reverse polarity protection. 7. Soft start feature.

OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS
Apply 230V to the AC Input terminal. Switch ON the input ON-OFF switch. Illumination of green LED indicates the mains voltage presence. Keep the Auto/Manual selector switch in Auto Mode by opening cover in the front panel. The cell selection switch which is mounted in the PCB is to adjust depending upon the number of cells connected to the battery.

 Adjust the preset VR7 in the PCB for required DC output voltage in the float mode. Connect the battery to the battery terminals. Depending up on the condition of the battery, battery charger to select auto float mode or auto boost mode.

At Auto boost mode adjust the VR12 preset in the PCB to set the battery current to the required value. If the chargers Auto Mode fails, battery charger shows AUTO fail indication with audible alarm, then change the spare PCB which is mounted inside the charger. Still there is no output in the Battery charger, change mode selector switch SW2 to manual mode and select the output voltage by adjusting manual selector switch SW3. Equipment ground to be properly earthed.

TESTS ON BATERY CHARGERS

TYPES TESTS
The following shall comprise type tests and shall be carried out in the given sequence. a) Visual Inspection b) Insulation Resistance Test c) Applied High Voltage Test d) Induced High Voltage Test e) Temperature Rise Test f) Performance Test g) Test for protective devices h) Climatic Tests.

ACCEPTANCE TESTS
The following shall comprise Acceptance Tests:a) Visual Inspection. b) Insulation Resistance Test. c) Applied High Voltage Test. d) Induced High Voltage Test. e) Temperature Rise Test. f) Performance Test. g) Test for protective devices.

ROUTINE TESTS
Following shall constitute routine tests to be and shall be conducted by Manufacturer on every battery charger and test results will be submitted during the inspection. a) Visual Inspection. b) Insulation Resistance of main transformer. c) Insulation resistance of complete charger. d) Performance Test.

SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY

CONTENTS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Introduction. Advantages of SMPS. Modular power system- Block diagram. Principle of SMPS. Special features of SMPS power plant. Operational requirements. Information supplied by purchaser. General Technical data.

INTRODUCTION
What is SMPS ? Switch mode power supply, is an electronic device in which the active device that provides regulation is always operate in a Switched mode, ie. It is operated either in cut-off or in saturation for the control of output voltage.

ADVANTAGES OF SMPS

1) Efficiency over 90%. 2) Modular construction, so the time to rectify the failure is very much reduced. 3) Due to standby modular arrangement, active load sharing will be there. 4) Smaller in size when compared to linear power supply. 5) Occupies less space and it can be accommodated in the equipment rack itself. 6) Noise is less.

7) Stand alone rack with combined distribution/switching/alarm arrangement for small power requirements. 8) Temperature compensated battery charging. 9) Low voltage battery disconnect. 10) Additional protection with MCBs on AC as well as DC side for rectifier module. 11) Either Conventional type or VRLA type can be used.

MODULAR POWER SYSTEM

BLOCK DIAGRAM

PRINCIPLE OF SMPS

A.C.230V, 50Hz 1 is given to the input rectifier circuit which converts AC into pulsating D.C. This is given to a high frequency switching circuit. The switching element is a special transistor such as MOSFET. It operates between 10 KHz 100 KHz. The input D.C is chopped at this high frequency in SMPS. The switching device is always operated in switched mode, ie. It is operated either in cut off or in saturation.

 The output of control element (MOSFET) is given to a converter transformer of ferrite core which can work at the frequencies which are employed in SMPS. This stage converts high voltages to the requires voltages. This output is applied to Output rectifier stage.

The output rectifier circuit converts this high frequency voltage to DC voltage by gold doped Junction Diodes or Schottky barrier diode. The high frequency ripples are filtered by parallel capacitors having low equivalent series resistance.

 A part of DC output of SMPS is taken as feedback signal and connected PRIN to one of the inputs of comparator. Internally generated reference voltage is given to the other input. The output of comparator depends on the voltage of feedback signal, which depends on the AC input variations and output load variation.

 The output of comparator is given to input of PWM circuit, which generates squire wave controlling pulses. The pulse width is increased or decreased when the reference voltage goes high or low from its standard value. The duration of ON or OFF timings of switching transistor is controlled by the pulse duration of PWM signals.

 If the out put voltage of the SMPS decreases, the width of the controlling pulse to the transistor is increased. Hence it gives power to the load for longer duration, simultaneously increasing the output voltage. When the output voltage of SMPS increases, the width of the controlling pulse to the transistor is decreased. Hence it gives power to the load for shorter duration, simultaneously decreasing the output voltage.

SPECIAL FEATURES OF SMPS POWER PLANT

1. Active input power factor correction & Active input current shaper. 2. Input lightning protection as per for tropical atmosphere. 3. Input surge protection as per for noisy & surge prone shared utility line. 4. Battery path current limiting for safe charging of VRLA batteries.

5. Reverse battery protection. 6. Temperature compensation of output voltage for extending battery life. 7. Digital display of voltage & current on each rectifier module. 8. Menu driven micro controller based control of rectifiers & system.

ACTIVE INPUT POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Due to distortion less than 10% in phase with the input AC, the power factor is as high as 0.98 can be achieved. These feature help to save considerable energy and reduces the running expense.

INPUT LIGHTNING PROTECTION

Special heavy duty & fast spark gaps are used for lightning protection. These arrestors have very high peak current capability to withstand currents due to heavy & repeated lightning strikes. These protection units when installed in the AC entry point protects the total installation.

INPUT SURGE PROTECTION

Special high capacity surge arrestors are used to handle the surges of high energy content, kept inside ACDB panel, which avoids the failure of charger equipment.

BATTERY PATH CURRENT LIMITING

The charging current through the VRLA battery limited to safe value i.e.10% of AH capacity of the battery, by the Micro controller in central control unit. This feature helps to prevent heating of the batteries & subsequent damage due to over heating. Maximum charging current allowed in case of VRLA battery is 20% of Capacity (AH).

REVERSE BATTERY PROTECTION

Reverse battery protection in case of VRLA battery is provided to get longer life and avoid any hazardous to the unit. This is given in MCM module.

TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION
The Central controller measures the temperature and accordingly modifies the voltage of the rectifiers. This feature increases the life of the batteries.

DIGITAL DISPLAY OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

A large size digital display(12mm) on each rectifier gives the values of rectifier output current & voltage. This results in better monitoring & checking of current sharing among modules at a glance.

MENU DRIVEN MICRO CONTROLLER BASED CONTROL OF RECTIFIERS & SYSTEM

Various charging parameters can be set or altered by entering through buttons, provided on front panel of the charger. LEDs have been used to indicate all alarms and status.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SMPS BATTERY CHARGER

BLOCK DIAGRAM

DIFFERENT MODULES IN SMPS

a) b) c) d) e) f)

Switch Mode power supply is a modular design of rectifiers allow flexibility and easy replacement. A typical power plant consists of: Lightning protection Unit (LPU). AC distribution panel & surge protection module. Monitoring & control Module (MCM) with battery reverse protection. BI mounting panel. Switch Mode Rectifier modules (SMR). Wired Rack.

LIGHTNING PROTECTION UNIT(MODULE)

It is provided near LT panel and contains spark gap LDS. The earth connection must be short & the cable should be more than 6mm squire.

 The incoming AC mains is terminated in this panel, Circuit breakers are provided for distribution of AC to every rectifier. This module special very high current Surge Suppressions devices to divert the current to the earth in the event of high voltage surges in AC lines.

AC DISTRIBUTION PANEL SURGE PROTECTION MODULE

MONITORING AND CONTROL MODULE (MCM)

This module carries out all supervisory and control of the power plant. This is provided with battery reverse protection arrangement.

BATTERY ISOLATION PANEL / RACK

This arrangement is provided to monitor currents flowing in or flowing out of individual ICs. Audio &Visual alarm is generated when any of the batteries are disconnected from the system.

SWITCH MODE RECIFIER MODULE

These converts AC mains voltage to regulated DC for powering Telecom installations. They are high efficiency converters with near unity power factor.

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF SMR

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
Input: 165 to 260 Volts phase-to-neutral AC,3 Wire, 48 to 52Hz. Output: 56 Volts at 25 Amps. Power factor: 0.99 at full load and 230 Volts AC input. Current harmonic distortion: Less than 10% at full load and 230 Volts input. Efficiency:90% at full load and 230 Volts AC input. Ripple & noise:100mV peak-to-peak & less than 2mV psophometric. Acoustic noise: Less than 45dBA.

 Transient response: Limited to5% & recovery within 10mSec. Protections: Over voltage, Over load, Short circuit. Indications; AC on, Under voltage, Over voltage, Current limit, Float mode, Charge mode, Rectifier fail, Rectifier disable. Environmental: As per QM-333B2 of DoT. Cooling: Natural Convection.

POWER SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

Sl.No Load(Equipment & Battery Bank) 1 12.5 A to 25 A 2 3 4 5 25A to 50A 50A to 100A 100 A to 150 A 150 A to 200A (n-1)SMR modules (2-1)X12.5A (2-1)X25A (2-1)X50A (3-1)X50A (4-1)X50A

OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
A) 1. a) b)
2. a)

b)

EFFICIENCY: Units working on single phase: At normal input,output & full rated load better than 80%. For other specified input, output conditions better than 75%. Units working on 3 phase: At nominal input, output, full rated load: better than 85%. For other specified input, output conditions: better than 80%. Purchasers should indicate whether the equipment work on 1 or 3.

B) POWER FACTOR: 1. At normal input and output 7 load 75% to 100% 0.95 lag & 0.98 lead. 2. For other specified input, output conditions & load between 25% to 100%: 0.90 lag & 0.90 lead. C) OPERATING TEMPERATURE: 0-55C. D) LIGHTNING PROTECTION: The system shall be provided with class B & C type arrestors having thermal disconnection inside to avoid fire hazards as per specification No:VDE 0675/IEC 1643. The arrestors should be in the modular form so that they can be replaced easily. The rated voltage of arrestors should be 280V.

E) COMPONENTS: The components of the equipment shell be of professional grade of reputed manufacturers to ensure promt and continuous service and delivary of spare parts. Fuses shall conform to specification number:IS2208. F) WIRING: All insulated conductors/cables shall conform to IS1554. The wiring should be neat. G) BUS BARS: The copper used for Bus Bars should be of 99.9%(Min) pure. The Bus Bar shall be capable of carry current density of 2Amps/mm squire.

H) EARTHING: All non current carrying metal parts shall be bonded together and earthed. An earth terminal suitable for taking minimum 4mm Dia wire and with suitable marking shall be provided. I) NAME PLATE: The name plate fix on each rack should contain the following information: 1. Specification number. 2. Type of unit. 3. Manufacturers name and identification. 4. Model Number. 5. Unit serial Number. 6. Input voltage & Phase. 7. Output voltage 7 current.Year of manufacture. 8. Suitable for battery capacity.

J) MODULAR REPLACEMENT TIME & MTBF: The mean time to replace a faulty rectifier module shall be less than 20 minutes. The MTBF of the system shall not be less than 70,000 Hours. The fan provided shall have MTBF better than 70,000 hours at 40C. In case of fan failure, the module shall have automatic protection to switch off with extension of suitable alarm. It shall not cause any fire hazard. K) ELECRTICAL REQUIREMENTS: 1. AC INPUT SUPPLY: The power plant using SMR modules of 12.5 &25 A shall operate from 1AC input, and SMR modules of 50 A capacity may operate from 1 or 3 4 wire AC input. 2. Nominal input frequency 50Hz (48-52Hz). 3. Input voltage range Nominal 1:230V(165V260V)

INFORMATION SUPPLIED BY THE PURCHASER

1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

The type of battery to be used: VRLA or Conventional type Lead Acid Battery. Battery Capacity. Total load requirement for equipment and battery. Number of SMR modules and current rating of each module. Ultimate capacity of the system. Power plant will work on 1 or 3. Provision for Network Monitoring arrangement. Power plant to work as float mode or boost mode or both.

Mains input: Voltage Phase. Current voltage 230V. Frequency Power factor

GENERAL TECHNICAL DATA: (SMPS POWER MODULE 12.5A/48V)

: 320V(150V-275V),1: 3.4A Sinusoidal at nominal : 48-52 Hz. : >Efficiency:>90.

 Rectifier output: Switching frequency :76KHz. Charging characteristic :IU in accordance with din 41773 Float mode: 54V(adjustable from 46V to 59V). Charge mode : 55.2V(adjustable from 46 to 59V) . Nominal current in Float& charge mode : 12.5A. Battery : 24 Pb-cells, rated voltage:48V.

Voltage change :5 Setting time :<5ms. Regulation : Float/charge : 1. Battery Temperature : 3mV/C/Cell. Environmental: Cooling : Natural cooling. Operating Temperature : 55C. Specification : Meets QM333,B2. Mechanical: Height :262mm. Width : 106mm(1/4 of19). Depth : 252mm. Weight : 5.5 Kg.

INVERTERS AND CONVERTERS

CONTENTS
1. Introduction. Principle of converters. 2. DC to DC Converters Different types. 3. Some special features of DC-DC converters. 4. Performance requirements. 5. Types of tests on converters. 6. 500 Watts MOSFET based inverter.

INTRODUCTION

NESSICITY OF CONVERS & INVERTERS

For operating communication equipments correct voltage is required. So converting equipments are necessary for converting the supply voltage into a form suitable for being fed to the equipment. Where only a low voltage DC supply is available and higher AC voltages needed DC to AC inverters are to be used. When a higher DC voltage is needed, "DC DC converters" must be used.

PRINCIPLE OF CONVERTERS

BLOCK DIAGRAM

 A- Low voltage DC supply. B- Switches DC supply ON and OFF continuously at an audio frequency to give an AC voltage. C- Step up transformer steps up required AC. D- Smoothing circuit from, which emerges a final high voltage DC, V out.

D.C. - D.C. CONVERTERS

 Solid State Converters are built with transistors or SCR s. For low power up to 100W DC, transistors are normally used. Above 100W, SCRs take over from transistors. The chopping frequency at which DC is converted to AC is usually between 50 Hz to 20 KHz. In practice converters are used most commonly to step up from standard 6,12 & 24V lead acid storage batteries. Sometimes DC-DC converters are used even where a mains supply is available.

TWO TRANSISTORS, ONE TRANSFORMER DC-DC CONVERTER

 This is the commonest circuit used in most of the commercial DC-DC converters. This self-oscillating, push-pull circuit uses two power transistors in a symmetrical square wave oscillator. The operation of the circuit depends mainly on the square loop pattern of the BH curve of the transformer and switching properties of the transistors.

DESCRIPTION
The transistors TX1 & TX2 play the part of the switches and are constrained by transformercoupled feedback to be alternately ON and OFF, so as to connect the unidirectional input voltages alternately to the separate halves of the primary windings of the output transformer T. This produces an alternating square wave output across the secondary transformer.

TWO TRANSISTORS, TWO TRANSFORMERS DC-DC CONVERTER

THE PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Initially when the input supply is switched on, one of the transistors in the converter circuit conducts more rapidly than the other. Suppose Q2 conducts earlier than Q1 - It tends towards saturation and takes the lower end of the primary of 'T2' down to zero volts. The top dot indicated end of the 'T2' primary goes positive by an equal amount above the positive power voltage (to which the center tap is connected).

 The magnetizing current of T1 builds up linearly until the core saturates. When T1 reaches its saturation, flux density, the magnetizing current increases very rapidly and the secondary voltage collapses and cannot hold Q2 saturated. The collector voltage of Q2 rises and regenerative action causes Q1 and Q2 to reverse states.

 This carries the bottom dot, indicated end of the primary of T1 also positive and switches Q2 ON and Q1 OFF. As these processes repeat during each half cycles, oscillations are sustained. The frequency of oscillation depends on the following: i) No. of turns of the primary windings of T1 ii) Core Cross Section and Core material characteristics in T1. iii) Value of RF (Resistor Feed Back) and RB (Resistor bias).

SCR DC-DC CONVERTERS

SCR DC-DC CONVERTERS

This type of converters are mostly used at high power and high input voltages. This converter consists of two basic units, the power switching section and a low power oscillator necessary for periodic triggering of the switching section. It is assumed that separate oscillator is available to apply current pulses alternately through the gates G1 and G2 of SCR to turn them on.

FUNCTIONING
The SCR1 & SCR2 are triggered alternatively , and the commuting voltages are applied by the capacitor C across the primary winding of transformer. Thus generating an alternating voltage wave form, which is developed across the secondary winding of transformer. The function of the choke L is to limit the current flow during the commutation process i.e., while both SCRs may be conducting. It also tends to limit the rate at which C discharges and so hold the SCRs reversebiased until it.

 A formula for minimum value of C is given as: C= 1.44n2 T off R T off = Turn off time of the SCRs n = Ns/Np R = Load resistance seen by the output of the transformer recovers to the blocking state.

SPECIAL FEATURES OF CONVETERS

(i) The process of starting oscillations: Most converter circuits are intrinsically self-starting for light loading, but with higher output current, starting becomes difficult. The starting is generally achieved by one of the following arrangements: (a) Placing a large initial forward bias on the transistor. (b) Applying an initial heavy asymmetrical pulse to the circuit. (c) Reducing the initial load by a series choke or by a feedback circuit.

ii) Transient spike suppression circuit: The following de-spiking circuits may be used to protect the semiconductor devices, (a) Clipping diodes from collector to emitter (b) Capacitors from collector to emitter (c) Series capacitor-resistors across total feedback winding. (d) Collector to Collector capacitor and (e) Series capacitor-resistors across transformer secondary.

(iii) Regulating the output voltage of the DC-DC converters: In the converters the output voltage is directly proportional to the input voltage so that the line regulation is poor. In addition, ringing choke converters etc., works on constant output power basis so that output voltage for these will vary with change in load currents also. Very often, therefore, some form of stabilizing circuitry is needed to keep the output voltage constant.

PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS

 RDSO has specified various performance requirements and Type Tests of DC-DC Converters as per RDSO Specification No.123/1991. (a) The converter shall operate from nominal input voltages of 120V, 50V, 48V, 24V and with output voltages of 5V, 10V, 12V, 18V and 24V or any other voltage as specified by the purchaser with output current capacities, varying from 1 amp. to 15 amps. (b) Voltage regulation shall not be worse than + 1% for all output ranges, for input supply variation from -10% to +20% of nominal input voltage indicated in para 1 above. (c) The output shall be free from over-shoot on account of turn 'ON/turn OFF' or power failure or when the battery charger is switched ON/OFF. d) It shall work in the temperature range of 00 C to 700 C and relative humidity upto 95%.

(e) The

unit shall be provided with over-load protection, output over voltage protection and output short circuit protection with feed back characteristics. The overload protection shall be effective at 120% of the nominal output rating. (f) The overall efficiency of the converter shall not be less than 50%. (g) The switching frequency used shall not be less than 20 KHz. The converter shall employ PWM technique for regulation of DC output. (h) All components used such as, transistors, diodes, FETS, Integrated circuits etc., shall meet the relevant IS: Specification or JSS specification. (i) All indications and fuses shall be provided on the front panel. (j) The noise spikes on the input side shall be attenuated by at least at 60 db when measured at the output side.

(k) The equipment shall withstand vibration tests from 10 Hz to 55 Hz,0.75 mm peak to peak displacement in all three tests for two hours each or at resonant frequency for two hours. (l) Additional requirements of DC/DC converters are to be provided for Axle Counter installations, solid state interlocking, Data logger and other similar equipment involving TTL IC's, Linear IC's, Microprocessors, CMOS devices, etc.

1. It shall be capable of operating from nominal input of 12 V battery on float/boost charger. 2. Outputs of +10 V & +5 V shall be with common ground and 10V with separate ground. 3. Voltage regulation shall be 0.1% or less for the common ground outputs and +0.7 V for the independent ground output. 4. Crowbar protection with independent comparison and firing circuits for 5 V supply to act within 20 micro seconds at 6.3 V + 0.2 V.

5.Ripple and noise in the output shall be less than 40 mV peak to peak with normal ground connection. 6.The outputs, where current required is of the order of 1 Amp. or less shall make use of converter IC chips. In order to increase the reliability of converter, series-parallel combination of such IC's shall be used.

TESTS ON CONVERTERS

TYPE OF TESTS
The following shall constitute type tests and shall carried out in the given sequence:a) Visual inspection. b) Applied high voltage test. c) Insulation resistance test. d) Test for continuous operation. e) Performance Test. f) Test for protective devices. g) Overload and in rush current test.

500-WATT MOSFET BASED PWM INVERTER

BLOCK DIAGRAM

 This circuit is a 500 Watts domestic type which produces 500 Watts output at 50Hz pulse width modulated square wave with EMI filter at the output. The main features are summarized below can well under stood by referring the line cum block diagram as shown below. 1. Automatic changeover occurs from mains to inverter operation on mains failure.

2. A single transformer is used to cater for inverter output and battery charger. The charger portion of the secondary winding is disconnected from the charger in case of mains failure and also when the battery tends to reach the over-charged condition.

3.Pulse width modulation (PWM), using a popular low priced IC SG3526A, is employed. The error voltage is developed from the AC output when inverter is in operation. 4. Automatic shut-off of the inverter occurs when any (one or more) conditions are present: (a) Mains supply is available. (b) Battery voltage is below minimum level.

(c) Temperature exceeds specified limit, (d) An overload occurs. (e) Manual shout-off switch is operated. 5. Apart from the built-in electronic safe guards additional safe guards by way of MCCBs (modulated case circuit breakers) have been provided in AC output, battery charger input and battery output to avoid any unto ward damage due to shortages.

6. LED indications are included to indicate the following: (a) Whether mains is available or inverter is ON. (b) Overload condition. (c) Over temperature condition. (d) Battery voltage level including low and over charged condition. (e) Battery charging in normal and trickle charged modes.

VOLTAGE STABILISERS

CONTENTS
1. Introduction. 2. Requirements for mains voltage stabilizer. 3. Simple voltage stabilizing circuits. 4. Complex stabilizing systems. 5. Constant voltage transformer. 6. Ferro-resonant type automatic voltage regulator.

INTRODUCTION
In most of the S & T installations, the power supply will have to be maintained reasonably constant. Due to variations in the A.C. supply voltages, it is necessary to incorporate the

REQUIREMENTS FOR MAINS VOLAGE STABILIZER

There are four main requirements for a mains voltage stabilizer. 1. The accuracy of stabilizing action can be within + 0.05% + 2%, but stabilization to better than + 0.5% can be considered as very good. 2. The speed of response, which is defined as the accuracy of the system divided by the time taken to reset the voltage for a change to bring back the accuracy (the regulating time). For instance, if this resetting time is 1 sec, the speed of response would be 1% per sec.

3. The output waveform. In certain applications it is important to have the power supply free from distortions of the original sinusoidal waveform. Stabilizing circuits using non-linear elements, as for example saturated inductances introduce such distortions. They can be removed by using low pass filters.

SIMPLE STABILIZING CIRCUITS

BARRETER STABILIZER

 In the case where, a stabilized source is supplying a constant load, a quite simple stabilizing device can be designed as shown in figure. The barreter B is inserted in series with the primary of the step up transformer T, and this stabilizes the current drawn from the mains. With a constant load, the primary and secondary voltages will the be stabilized and any voltage variations will occur across the battery.

 This method works quite successfully, provided that the power required is not too large and, as previously stated, that the loading conditions are constant. The primary winding should be calculated for the actual barreter current, otherwise, it is necessary to shunt the primary by a resistor R to secure a sufficiently high current through the battery. In certain applications such a resistor R can be made variable (possibly in steps) to allow for varying loading conditions.

THERMISTER VOLTAGE STABILIZER

 Voltage stabilization can also be achieved by the use of thermistor which are semiconductor resistors having a negative temperature resistance coefficient. Thermistor is used as non-linear device for stabilizing a low ac voltage. An impedance Z connected across the load, consists of an ordinary resistor R and a thermistor S connected in series.

COMPLEX STABILIZING SYSTEMS

 It involve those with moving parts are known as static voltage systems of which the constant voltage transformer is an example.

CONSTANT VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

BASIC OPERATION
A basic static magnetic regulator circuit making use of constant voltage transformer principle. If Ep increases, Es and Ec also increase, Ec, however, increase more rapidly than Es , but is smaller in magnitude. For some range of Ep the increase in Es will be off set by the increase in Ec since these are connected in opposing polarity. For reduction in Ep exactly the opposite takes place and the total change of E out is minimised.

ADVANTAGES
(1) Ultra - fast regulating action. Response time is usually 1.5 seconds or less. (2) Absence of moving or renewable parts or manual adjustments eliminates the need for routine maintenance and spare parts. (3) No manual adjustments are required. (4) Self protecting against short circuits on output or load circuit. (5) Current limiting characteristic protects load equipment from fault currents.

(6) Availability of transformer ratio for step-up, step-down. Plate and/or filament supply permits substitution in place of conventional, non-regulating transformers. (7) Relatively compact compared to other equipment for comparable regulation. (8) High degree of isolation between input and output circuits. (9) Negligible external field.

FERRO RESONANT TYPE AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR

In this the primary side of the transformer operates below the saturation and secondary side operates in the saturated region of magnetic curve. Core material used: Primary side--- MILD STEEL (Unsaturated Iron) Secondary side---- SILICON STEEL ( Saturated Iron)

WORKING

 The capacitor of the proper value is connected across the secondary winding to form a parallel resonance circuit. If the voltage is applied on primary winding and it is gradually increased from zero to a particular voltage, called as KNEE VOLTAGE or point of discontinuity, at which secondary is tuned to parallel resonance.

 Due to the resonance effect the capacitors increases the secondary voltage abruptly. This results, in the secondary core magnetic flux is induced due to capacitance current flowing in the secondary winding. This magnetic flux is added to the magnetic flux flowing through secondary core due to the primary voltage. Hence flux addition is taking place in the secondary core causes secondary get saturated.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

WORKING
The resonant voltage across the capacitor bank(Vc) is not more than480 V at all input voltage & frequency conditions at no load. Normally Vc =440 V no load. Capacitors are rated for 600V AC metal-can capacitors. A magnetic shunt is provided between the two windings. When the secondary magnetic circuit is saturated, much of the secondary flux is decoupled from the primary winding and passes through magnetic shunt.

 At primary knee voltage secondary core is saturated and after knee voltage the increased amount of magnetic flux passes through the magnetic shunt and does not increase the flux at secondary. Hence secondary voltage remains more or less constant. Part of the primary & secondary magnetic flux flowing through magnetic shunt increases magnetic isolation between the two windings.

PURPOSE OF COMPENSATING WINDING

It improves the regulation of voltage. It is kept in series with the primary winding and added to the primary side of the transformer. This compensating winding carries the load current and opposes the primary flux. With compensating winding the input voltage operating range also increased to give constant output voltage.

 With compensating winding short circuit protection is also achieved. If the output is short circuited then the current passing through the compensating winding is also very high.

 This causes very high reduction in primary flux and there by reducing the induced secondary voltage. Performance : This type of voltage regulators are generally used with minimum load of 25% of its rated capacity. However, the design of voltage regulator shall cater for any load from no load to full load of its rated capacity. The harmonic distortion in output voltage is maximum at no load.

FEATURES
1. Robust in construction. 2. No moving parts. 3. It's out-put voltage= 2301 for input voltage range of 160V to 270 V at 50Hz, when it is connected to rated load. 4. Lower rang may be extended from 160 V to 150 V, if required by the purchaser. In this case output voltage not less than 230 V 4% for all loads from 25% to full load.

5. Operating frequency= 50Hz2.5Hz. 6. Power handling capacity - 0.5 KVA to 10 KVA 7. Fast regulation: Response time is < 60 m.sec. For sudden changes of 50 V in-put voltage or load variation from 25% to 75% of rated load. 8. No load current is not more than 30% of the rated in-put current.

9. No load power is not more than50% of the rated out-put power at input voltage of 230V, 50 Hz. 10. Watt efficiency not less than 80 in case of 0.5 KVA & not less than 85 in case of 1 KVA to 10 KVA at full load. 11. Complete automatic and continuous regulation.

12. Immune to input spikes and surges, because of high isolation between I/P & O/P. 13. Immune to short circuit at O/P. 14. Self protection against over load.

DRAWBACKS
1. The harmonic distortion in the O/P voltage is maximum at no load. Minimum 25 load of rated load must be provided. 2. Out-put voltage is frequency dependent. Output voltage variation is 1.55 for 1 change in the frequency. At 50 Hz frequency O/P voltage =230 V At 47.5 Hz frequency O/P voltage =213 V At 52.5 Hz O/P voltage = 247 V i.e. For Hz------- 3 O/P voltage variation.

DC VOLTAGE REGULATORS

CONTENTS
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Necessity of regulators. Classification of regulators. Linear regulators. Switched regulators. Open loop regulators. Closed loop regulators. Combinations of above regulators.

NECESSITY OF REGULATOR
DC voltage of any rectifier is not constant due to the variations in the AC input to the rectifier. It varies significantly by the loading network and also due to variation in the supply voltage. This is to be regulated by a regulator circuit to get a constant DC output.

CLASSIFICATION

CLASSIFICATION OF VOLTAGE REGULATORS

The voltage regulators can be classified in 3 ways: 1.Series and Shunt DC voltage regulators 2.Linear and Switched DC voltage regulators. 3. Open and closed loop DC voltage regulators.

SERIES AND SHUNT REGULATORS

a) Series regulator: The voltage is regulated by adjusting the voltage drop across the RA. b) Shunt regulator: The voltage is regulated by adjusting the current drop through RA.

LINEAR AND SWITCHED REGULATORS

Linear Regulators: The adjustable resistance dissipate large power in case of high volt- amp requirements. So power loss is high.To avoid this Switched regulators are used. Switched regulators:The control element regulates the output voltage. The power loss is less.

SERIES SWITCHING REGULATOR

 An ON/OFF switching control element controls the ON/OFF duty cycle so the current from input is released in pulses, which provide a controlled DC voltage output level. The switching duty cycle circuit adjusts itself so that the mean output voltage remains constant irrespective of input voltage or load current variations.

SHUNT SWITCHING REGULATOR

ON/OFF switching control element is connected in shunt form. It bleeds OFF current from the supply away from the load. So that it regulates the output voltage.

OPEN LOOP REGULATORS

Open loop regulator is that which works without any separate line of feed back from the output.

TYPES OF OPEN LOOP REGULATORS

These are TWO types: 1. Open loop Linear Series Voltage regulator. 2. Open Loop Linear Shunt Voltage Regulator.

OPEN LOOP LINEAR SERIES VOLTAGE REGULATOR

 The reference voltage is a fixed one which is fed into the series controlled voltage follower linear amplifier, which holds the output voltage at fixed voltage. Emitter follower is one very common type of open loop regulator.

OPEN LOOP LINEAR SHUNT VOLTAGE REGULATOR

 A current I flowing from an input voltage Vin through a series dropping resistor RA, gives a voltage (Vin - IRA). This voltage is controlled by the current sink amplifier in reference to the fixed reference, by varying the current, in such a way that the output voltage V out remains at a fixed voltage difference from the reference voltage.

CLOSED LOOP REGULATORS

 Closed loop regulator is that, in which the output voltage is regulated by an error signal developed by sensing the output voltage of regulator and fed back to the comparator.

CLOSED LOOP VOLTAGE REGULATORS

These are TWO types, 1. Closed loop Series Linear Voltage Regulator. 2. Closed Loop Shunt Linear Voltage Regulator.

CLOSED LOOP SERIES LINEAR VOLTAGE REGULATORS

 The basic control of the output voltage is achieved by a series controlled linear 'Voltage Drop' amplifier. The output voltage sensing circuit produces a voltage, which is a fixed fraction of output voltage and feeds back to comparator.

CLOSED LOOP SHUNT LENIER VOLTAGE REGULATOR

In shunt regulator, the shunt controlled current drain amplifier adjusts the current it draws from the output rail, which changes the voltage drop across Rs.

 Fixed reference voltage source feeds the reference voltage to the comparator. The feed back fraction of the output voltage and the fixed reference voltage are compared by the comparator. Any difference between the two voltages activates the series controlled voltage drop amplifier or shunt controlled current drain amplifier to give a regulated voltage at output terminals.

SWITCHED REGULATORS

CLASSIFICATION OF SWITCHED REGULATORS

These are four types a) Open loop series, b) Closed loop series, c) Open loop shunt, d) Closed loop shunt.

OPEN LOOP SERIES SWITCHED REGULATOR

 In open loop type regulators, the fixed reference voltage source feeds a fixed voltage to oscillator, controlling switch duty cycle equipment. This controls the frequency or the markspace ratio of the oscillator, which in turn, controls the ON/OFF duty cycle of the ON/OFF switching circuit.

 The comparator compares feedback and fixed reference voltages. Depending on the difference between them, causes the Oscillator to vary the duty cycle of the ON/OFF power circuit until the V out reaches its designed level at a fixed voltage away from the reference voltage, that is regulated output voltage.

OPEN LOOP SHUNT SWITCHED REGULATOR

There is no feed back circuit ON/OFF power switching circuit is in shunt. Fixed reference voltage source is there.

CLOSED LOOP SERIES SWITCHED REGULATOR

Switching circuit is in series. It is a closed type having a feed back. Voltage sensing circuit senses the output voltage and connects to comparator. Output of comparator controls the ON/OFF timing of switch.

CLOSED LOOP SHUNT SWITCHED REGULATOR

Switching circuit is in shunt. It is a closed type having a feed back. Voltage sensing circuit senses the output voltage and connects to comparator. Output of comparator controls the ON/OFF timing of switch.

UN-INTERRUPTED POWER SUPPLY

CONTENTS
1. Introduction. 2. Principles of UPS. 3. Types of UPS, Block diagrams,their explanation and uses. 4. Comparison. 5. Specifications of UPS.

INTRODUCTION

UPS is used if there is, Line voltage fluctuations. Low line voltage. Supply lost for more than few milliseconds. Supply failure for more time.

PRINCIPLE OF UPS
UPS produces sign wave or quasi sign wave output by taking the D.C.input. The regulation of the output voltage is done by Pulse Width Modulation principle.

TYPES OF UPS
The UPS can be divided into Three types depending on the construction and change over time, They are, ON-Line UPS Which is always in ON condition irrespective of AC power supply on condition. OFF Line UPS - Which is switched on automatically d\as soon as the AC power is put off. Line interactive UPS Which works like Off line UPS, but it is always interacts with the AC line voltage.

ON-LINE UPS
The inverter is always in On condition. The battery capacity decides the backup time of UPS. The shape of the output wave form is pure Sine Wave. During normal or power off condition, the DC voltage from the battery is converted to AC voltage using the inverter circuit and stepped up to the required output voltage level.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ON-LINE UPS

ADVANTAGES &USES
ADVANTAGES:- There is no Changeover time from mains to battery mode in the case of power failure. USES:- This type of system is mostly used in the Power supply for Medical and Surgical equipments, and big computer systems where the data is most impotent like Banks and industries etc.

OFF-LINE UPS
The AC power is directly supplied to the load through an AC switch. Under fault conditions, the line connected to AC switch opens and the inverter AC switch will close allowing the battery to provide back-up power through the inverter stage.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

DETAILED DIAGRAM

ADVANTAGES
It is very much compact due to less number of components compared to ON-Line UPS. Inverter is On only when the AC is off/Input power is out of range. It is economical.

LINE INTERACTIVE UPS

During normal condition, the AC power directly supplied to the load through the AC switch which is normally ON. Under the emergency conditions, the AC switch opens the line and the battery is used to provide the back up power through the inverter stage.

BLOCK DIAGRAM
Normal Power Flow AC Output AC Switch AC Input Normal Triple Charge to Load

BT1 Battery

Rectifier & Inverter

T1

Emergency Power Flow

BLOCK DIAGRAM - LINE INTERACTIVE UPS

ADVANTAGES OF LINE INTERACTIVE UPS

It is provided with only one transformer which acts for both input and output. It is for only low power applications below 1KVA.

COMPARISION
Sl. No: 1 2 3 On-Line
Inverter is ON all time. Switching time is zero Generally sine wave Inverters are used.

OFF-Line
Inverter is ON only during Ac power failure. Switching time is less than 5 mS Sine wave/squire wave inverters

Line interactive
Inverter is ON only during Ac power failure. Switching time is less than 5 mS

Generally square wave inverters with CVT are used without CVT are used. Cost is low Cost is low

Cost is High

High quality sealed maintenance- free batteries are used.

Sealed Sealed maintenance maintenance free or others are free or others are used. used.

Used for main frame computers or work station computers or in applications where an un-interrupted power supply is required.

Used where interruption upto 5 ms is

permitted.

Used with PCs or Other applications Where interruption up to 5 mS is permitted

Float performance of a charger has a wide influence on battery life.

Battery charging Battery charging is is controlled controlled automatically. automatically.

SPECIFICATIONS OF UPS

1. Capacity --- Given in VA Ex. 500 to 10 KVA 2. Input mains voltage --- 170V to 270 Volts. 50 Hz +/-3%. 3. Input Battery voltage --- 2x 12V/6.5 AH. 4. Out put voltage (Mains mode) --- 230V 5 Out put voltage (Back-up mode) --230V 3. 5. Out put Frequency (Mains mode) --- Sine wave 50Hz 3 Out put frequency (Back up mode ) --- Quasi/Square 50Hz 0.5

6. Change over time --- 5 ms (Typical) 7. Battery recharge time --- 4 Hours 8. Efficiency (Mains mode --- 92 Efficiency( Back up mode) --- 85

9. LED indications& Audio alarm --- Mains present Mains Failure Battery discharging Battery low High voltage 10. Protection --- Out put overload Mains over voltage Battery low

11. Backup time --- 20minutes (typical) 12. Spike/ Surge suppression --- yes 13. EMI/RFI Filters --- yes 14. Operating temperature --- 0 50 C 15. Humidity --- 35 to 95

PHOTO VOLTAIC GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY SOLAR CELLS SOLAR CELLS

INTRODUCTION
In recent years, Photo Voltaic Power Generation has been receiving considerable attention as one of the more promising energy alternatives. Reasons are: No pollution No fuel is required No maintenance Reliable power generation Very much suitable for remote areas

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

PHOTO VOLTAIC EFFECT

Electricity can be generated directly from Sunlight, by a process called as Photo Voltaic effect, Definition: The generation of an electromotive force as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation. Devices that use the PV effect to generate a voltage when Sunlight is used as the source of the ionizing radiation are called Solar Cells.

SOLAR CELL
heart of any PV Power System is the Solar Cell. It is a transducer that converts the Sun's radiant energy directly into electricity It is basically a semiconductor diode capable of developing voltage.

SOLAR CELL
The device which converts solar energy to Electrical energy is known as Solar cell. It is a smallest unit of Solar power system. It is made from semiconductor materials like Silicon, Germanium, Galium Arsenide(GaAs) or Cadmiun sulphide(CdS).

PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR CELL

A silicon crystal is doped with a pentavalent element to get N-type material and doping with tetravalent material P- type material. Both are jointed at the junction known as PN junction as shown in the figure. Doping a crystal not only increases its electrical conductivity, but also makes the crystal preferentially receptive to electrons or to holes.

PN - JUNCTION
In a Silicon Solar Cell the layer of a typical silicon cell is of a thickness such that light falling on the surface penetrates far into the crystal to create electron-hole pairs in the vicinity of the junction with the P-type silicon. The thickness is typically half a micron. Therefore, when light falls on the cell electrons will collect in the N-type layer and holes will collect in the P-type layer until there is a voltage built up within the crystal sufficient to push any other electron back into the P-type layer.

 A typical Solar Cell is shown schematically in figure. The P-N Junction is obtained by putting a P-type positive and negative charges created by absorption of photons are thus encouraged to drift to the front and back of the Solar Cell. The back is completely covered by a metallic contact to remove the charges to the electrical load. base material into a diffusion furnace containing a gaseous N-type dopant and allowing the dopant to diffuse into the surface about 0.2 m.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF SOLAR CELL

ABBREVATIONS
Rsh is imperfections in the diode lending to current leakage. Rs is the resistance due to the transparent conducting layer, and to the lead connections, RL is external load IL is load current VL is voltage across load IP is Photo generated current or light generated current ID is diode dark current. Vj is voltage drop across junction region of the diode due together Optical or electrical biasing. C is the inherent capacitance.

SOLAR ARRAY CONFIGURATION

SINGLE SOLAR CELL

Most of the silicon Solar Cells employed for terrestrial applications are round wafers of 5 cm dia. and a thickness of 0.3 to 0.5 mm. A 5 cm dia. cell with surface area of about 20 cm2 delivers in "Full Sun", a power about 0.3 W at less than 0.5 V, at room temperature.

SOLAR MODULE
If number of cells connected in series to get more voltage it is known as Solar Module. For various applications standard Modules can be designed satisfying specific constraints. .

 The present standard values are 1.5 V, 6V, 12 V, 24 V, 48V, which are multiples of each other. Any specific power demand can be met by connecting a suitable number of Modules in series and in parallel

SOLAR PANEL
For higher power and higher voltage, a number of cells must be assembled into Panel. If more voltage is required, the cells should be connected in series and for more current in parallel. By connecting a number of cells in series and parallel, it is possible to provide any power at any voltage.

SOLAR SUB ARRAY

Number of solar panels connected together is known as Sub array.

SOLAR ARRAY
The solar arrays must be protected on both sides. This is achieved by sandwiching them between a substrate at bottom and a protection layer which is normally called as encapsulation.

EFFECT OF DUST, SNOW, ETC., ON SOLAR PANELS

Accumulation of dust, dirt and snow on Solar arrays effects adversely its efficiency of conversion. An experiment was conducted by Centre for Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, for qualification of effect of dust and wind on Solar Power conversion. The conclusions are as under:1. Effect of dust is more in winter months of December and January in comparison to April and May when dust storms are there.

2. In Monsoon months, effect of dust is less due to natural cooling and cleaning. 3. The low reduction in PV power output in Summer compared to Winter months is because of high wind speed and South West direction of wind that sweeps away the dust. 4. It is advisable to keep the PV arrays clean by periodical cleaning.

A TYPICAL P-V CONVERSION ARRAY

Total 16 Nos. of Solar Cell Modules are connected in series Parallel to give a peak output of 64 V and 5.8 amps. Each Solar module is assembled with 34 Solar Cells in series to give a peak output of 1.45 amps and 16V.

TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF POWER SUPPLY FOR LARGE LOADS

A typical arrangement is shown in figure. As the Solar Power is not available while it is dark, a normal storage arrangement is needed in the form of battery.

SOLAR UPS

SOLAR UPS
Basically Solar Modules are used in the daytime to produce electricity from the sun energy and stored in the battery for usage in the night times. The lights come ON automatically when the normal power fails and switch OFF automatically when the normal power comes back. The system is designed in such a way, the total charging is done by solar power during summer, 50% solar and 50% EB power during winter and 100% EB power in rainy days, so as to maintain the charges in the battery all the periods of the year. The products are very simple to install and requires practically no maintenance .

 The life of the solar module is about 20 years and the battery life is about 3 years and the bulb life is about 5 years. The investment by commercial establishments, are also eligible for 100% depreciation.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS & POWER SUPPLY ARRANGEMENTS

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS

1. The fuses provided for power supply systems like Battery chargers, Stabilizers, etc must be of correct value. Rating of fuses shall be equal to 1.5 times the current flowing through it. 2. Take all safety precautions while maintaining the battery. 3. Do not bring naked flames into Battery room. 4. Dangerous growth of vegetation near the equipments or feeder lines or masts must not be allowed.

5. Smoking should be prohibited inside the

6. 7. 8. 9.

petrol storage rooms and battery room. Oils, paints should not be stored near the equipments. All power supply systems must be properly earthed. All electrical installations shall be provided with gas type extinguishers. Water should not be used for extinguish electrical fires. Fuses shall be removed or replaced only after the circuit has been completely deenergized.

10. Suitable protective guards and wire nets shall be provided to prevent staff from making accidental contact at the dangerous voltages and radio frequency high power radiation. 11. Where cables pass through metallic parts, insulating bushes shall be provided. 12. Tools which are used in S&T circuits and on any current carrying parts of S&T equipment are required to be insulated to protect the staff from AC induced voltages.

LOAD CALCULATIONS

LOAD CALCULATION IN MICROWAVE STATION

In a Microwave stations different types of equipments takes load currents as follows: 1) Analog Radio Equipment FAS 7000 48 Volts DC working each takes 6 Amps current. If 2 Nos of such equipments takes 6X2=12 Amps current. 2) 7GHz Digital MW Radio equipment LSS 767(BEL) 48Volts DC working each takes 4 Amps current. If 1 No of such equipment is there it takes 4 Amps current.

3) Digital Multiplexing equipment 34 MB 48 Volts working each takes 1 Amps current. If 2 Nos of equipments are there, the total current will be 1X2 = 2 Amps. Total Load current of the above three equipments =12+4+ =18Amps. Capacity of the battery required = 18 Amps X10 Hours = 180 AH. As per RDSO instructions the battery should be discharged up to 50% of its capacity to make it recharge quickly,

 Therefore Actual capacity of the battery required= 180 X 2= 360 AH. The charge/discharge system is used in Microwave stations. Rating of the charger required to put the battery under normal charging = C/10 x 1.5 = 360/10 x 1.5 = 36 x 1.5 = 54 Amps.

Voltage X Load Current Total Load =---------------------------------Power Factor X Efficiency

48 V X (18 A) = -------------------0.8 X 0.7 = 1516 VA.

LOAD CALCULATION IN TELEPHONE EXCHANGE

1. C-Dot Electronic Exchange = 5 Amps. 2. OKI Electronic Exchange = 20 Amps. 3. ISDN Electronic exchange= 1.5 Amps. Total Load current = 5 + 20 + 1.5 =26.5A Total Load current of Telephone Exchange = 5 + 20 + 1.5 =26.5 Amps Capacity of the battery required = 26.5 Amps X10 Hours =265 AH.

 As per RDSO instructions the battery should be discharged up to 50% of its capacity to make it recharge quickly, Therefore Actual capacity of the battery required= 265 X 2 = 530 AH. Float charging system with Auto/Manual battery charger is used in Telephone exchange. Rating of the charger required to put the battery under Float charging = C/10 x 2.5 = 530/10 x 2.5 = 53 x 2.5 = 132.5 Amps. = 133 Amps. (Minimum)

Voltage X Load Current Total Load =-------------------------------Power Factor X Efficiency 48 X ( 26.5 + 53 ) =--------------------.8 X .7 = 6814 VA.

POWER SUPPLY ARRANGEMENTS

PLACES OF POWER SUPPLY ARRANGEMENTS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Power supply arrangements are at the following places: Microwave station Control office DTMF Way station equipment Telephone exchanges OFC hut

POWER SUPPLY ARRANGEMENTS IN CONTROL OFFICE

The AC mains voltage is given to the power pack. It contains PSU and Rectifier and regulator circuits. The out put of the power pack given to the DTMF Head quarter equipment. It gives 12V DC output. Inside of it a 4AH 12V maintenance free battery is kept as a stand by power source. It is charged with the charger and kept always in fully charged condition. During the failure of AC MAINS voltage immediately the battery supplies the required power to the load. After the restoration of a AC mains voltage the battery is gets charged.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

POWER SUPPLY ARRANGEMENT AT WAY STATION FOR DTMF EQUIPMENT At way station, DTMF equipment requires 12 V DC for its working. It is provided with the power pack as shown for the HQ equipment. At some places it can also be provided by a conventional type of Lead Acid Battery of 12V. It requires periodical maintaince which can be carried out by the repeater staff.

POWER SUPPLY ARRANGEMENT FOR RE RERPEATER

 RE repeater requires 24V DC for its working. It can be provided by 12 numbers of Conventional type Lead Acid cells connected in series to make a 24V battery OF 120AH capacity. The mains AC supply is given to the suitable type of battery charger like Auto/Manual type of charger with efficient filter circuit. The battery is connected in float fashion, so whenever the AC mains supply goes OFF immediately the battery takes care and equipment will not be interrupted. If the AC mains voltage is not restored shortly the battery charger can be provided with the AT (traction) supply which will be available all the time.

POWER SUPPLY ARRANGEMENT AT ELECTRONIC EXCHANGE

The electronic exchange requires 48V4V DC. This can be provided with a battery of 48V DC with 24 cells connected in series. The capacity of the battery can be calculated taking the current drawn by the equipment. A 80 AH battery is shown in the figure. A battery charger of suitable type with required current rating which can charge the battery and supply current to the load should be used.

EXAMPLE
Current drawn by the 128 port electronic exchange- 3 Amps. Capacity of the battery required is 3A X 10 H = 30 AH. But as for the RDSO the battery should not be discharged to 50% of its Capacity to get maximum life from it. So the Capacity of the battery required is double to that of the caliqulated value. Which becomes 2 X30 = 60 AH. So we can go for a 80 AH battery.

CALCULATION OF CHARGER CURRENT WHEN CONNECTED IN FLOAT

The charger current can be calculated from the battery capacity. If the battery capacity is 80 AH then the current capacity = 80AH/10H X 2.5 =20 Amps. This can supply 3 Amps load current and also 8 Amps for charging battery if fully discharged.

BLOCK DIAGRAM SHOWING POWER SUPPLY ARRANGEMENT FOR ELECTRONIC EXCHANGE

POWER SUPPLY ARRANGEMENT AT OFC HUT

+ AC 170-270 V, 50Hz AC Stabiliser Battery Charger SMPS 48 V D C 25 Amps VRLA/Low maintenance OFC Equipment _

MOVR

Battery:

Type:

Voltage: 48 V +/- 2 V D C Capacity: 120 AH 10 Hrs Number: 24 Nos. Each Cell Voltage: 2 V D C Float Voltage: 53.52 V (2.23 V/Cell) Boast Voltage: 55.2 V (2.3 V/Cell) Charge Type: SMPS Current rating of 12.5 Amps. Each SMR Module