Geotechnical Engineering

Geotechnical Engineering deals with the application of Civil Engineering Technology to some aspects of earth Geotechnical Commision of Swedish State Railways (1914-1922) was the first to use the word Geotechnical in the sense that we know it today: the combination of Civil Engineering technology and Geology Geotechnical Engineering deals with;

Design of Foundation Stability of Slopes and Cuts Design of Earth Structures Design of Roads and Airfield

Soil Descriptions

Soil is an unconsolidated agglomerate of minerals with or without organic matter found at or near the surface of the earth crust, with which or upon which civil engineers build their structures

Soil Formation
Mechanical Weathering (Physical Weathering Chemical Weathering Oxidation Carbonation Hydration Desilication Leaching

Weathering
Physical processes of weathering Unloading e.g. uplift, erosion, or change in fluid pressure. Thermal expansion and contraction Alternate wetting and drying Crystal growth, including frost action Organic activity e.g. the growth of plant roots. Chemical Process of weathering Hydrolysis is the reaction with water will not continue in the static water. involves solubility of silica and alumina
Chelation

Involves the complexing and

removal of metal ions . Cation exchange is important to the formation of clay minerals Oxidation and reduction. Carbonation is the combination of carbonate ions such as the reaction with CO2 Factors affect weathering Many factors can affect the weathering process such as climate, topography, features of parent rocks, biological reactions, and others. Climate determines the amount of water and the temperature.

Transportation of Weathering Products

Residual soilsto remain at the original place Engineering properties of residual soils are different with those of transported soils The knowledge of "classical" geotechnical engineering is mostly based on behavior of transported soils. The understanding of residual soils is insufficient in general. Transported soilsto be moved and deposited to other places. The particle sizes of transported soils are selected by the transportation agents such as streams, wind, etc. The transported soils can be categorize based on the mode of transportation and deposition (six types).

Transported Soils (Cont.)

(1) Glacial soils: formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers. (2) Alluvial soils: transported by running water and deposited along streams. (3) Lacustrine soils: formed by deposition in quiet lakes (e.g. soils in Taipei basin). (4) Marine soils: formed by deposition in the seas (Hong Kong). (5) Aeolian soils: transported and deposited by the wind (e.g. soils in the loess plateau, China). (6) Colluvial soils: formed by movement of soil from its original place by gravity, such as during landslide

Uses of Soil

As a supporting material to bear the loads of structures resting on earth As a raw constructional material for construction of earth structures (Dams, levees, roads) As a processed material (Burnt bricks, concrete mix etc.) In Pottery (Kaolinite) Kaolinite is also used in paper paint and pharmaceuticals Bentonite is used in drilling

Principle Soil Types

Loam Silt Mud Caliche Marl Hardpan Peat Clays Drift Shale Black Cotton Soil

Three Volumetric Ratios

(1) Void ratio e (given in decimal, 0.65)

e Volume of voids (Vv ) Volume of solids (Vs )

(2) Porosity n (given in percent 100%, 65%) Vse e Volume of voids (Vv ) n n Total volume of soil sample (Vt ) Vs (1 e) 1 e

(3) Degree of Saturation S (given in percent 100%, 65%)

Total volume of voids contains water (Vw ) 100 % Total volume of voids (Vv )

Typical Values of Specific Gravity

Material Quartz sand Cacareous sand Clay minerals Gs 2.65 2.64 2.71 2.67 2.73

Types of Soil in Pakistan

The Objectives of Soil Investigations

Identify & describe pertinent surface conditions

Determine location and thickness of soil and rock strata (subsurface soil profile)
Determine location of groundwater table

Recover samples for laboratory testing

Conduct lab and/or field testing Identify special problems and concerns

Desk Study

To determine the available information and become familiar with the project Geological maps, topographical maps and other records from Library Remote sensing data, Satellite imageries, Aerial Photographs Local authorities, statutory bodies, the geological survey, mining companies Experience of local contractors Maps are used to identify natural features such as streams, springs, scraps, landslides and vegetation etc. Maps are also used to identify man made surface features such as fences, power lines, roads and buildings

Site Reconnaissance
To confirm the findings of the desk study Current maps should be marked with site boundaries and major structures Visually check the ground conditions Look for settlement cracks on existing structures Record the location of transmission lines, trees, manholes or any other possible obstruction High water marks on old buildings, bridge abutments etc. Interviews of the local people

Preliminary Design Data

Soil exploration and preliminary design should be started about the same time
For buildings Type, Size and height, depth of basement Approximate arrangement of columns and bearing walls Approximate range of column and wall loads For bridges Type and length of bridge span Approximate loads on piers and abutments

Steps in Soil Exploration

Boring Sampling Testing

Common Types of Boring

Test (Trial) Pits Auger Percussion Drill Rotary Drill

Test Pits

For shallow visual investigations and to take sample from top few meters of soil Economical and rapid Excavation with hand tools, backhoe, bull dozer or caisson drilling equipment 1 to 3 m deep, can be extended to 6m Retaining structure my be used if collapse is expected Unsuitable for granular soil and below water level Some times trenches are dug

Auger

To drill holes to a shallow depth (up to 6m) Operated by hand or by power For disturbed or undisturbed samples Up to 200 mm dia hole Difficult in water bearing sand and gravels

Percussion Drill

Common method for advancing test holes in all soils and weak rocks for shallow and deep exploration Holes advanced by jack hammer and chopping bits 150 to 300 mm dia holes can be drilled from 1 to 80 m, most common depth is up to 30 m Shells, bailers, clay cutters and chisels are boring tools Hole is advanced by repeatedly raising and dropping the boring tool Casing may be required in unstable soils and deep holes

Rotary Drilling

To drill holes in almost all ground conditions for sampling and installation of instruments 75 mm to 150mm dia boreholes can be drilled from 1 to 250 mm (most common depth 1 to 30 m) Hole is advanced either by rotating bit or downhole hammer Cutting is removed by the flushing medium which is pumped down to the drill bit with a pump Casing is usually required in unstable soils and deep holes Common drilling fluid; bentonite in water with slurry density 68-72pcf

Types of Bits

Core bits (for sample recovery) Diamond or tungsten Drag (to create open holes) Rock rollers Percussion bits

Flushing Medium

Purpose is to remove particles and to cool the drill bits Air flush (operates at 1000 m3/min) Water flush (operates at 24-50 m3/min) Mud flush include bentonite and polymer based muds Mist and foam flushes (mixture of air, water and mud)

Sampling

To obtain specimens for determining the physical, chemical and mechanical characteristics of the soil in laboratory Samples can be either jar, bag, tube, continuous, core or block Ideal sampler must be thin walled (less area ratio), have smaller taper angle and smooth walls

Classification of Samples
Class Properties Symbols Technique

Classification
Strength Deformation Permeability

w, , SG, PI, PSD C, , Cu E, G, mv K, Cv

w, , SG, PI, PSD W, PI, PSD PSD, PI

Pushed thin wall sampler

Some thick wall samplers Some core barrels Thin and thick wall samplers and core barrels Clay cutter or auger (dry) Clay cutter or auger (wet)

Classification

3 4

Classification Classification

None

Cutting and flushing return

Sample Application
Type Jar Bag U100 Piston Tube Core Block Size Small Large 100 mm dia 0.5 m long Installation Cuttings Shell, Core Pushed jacked Class 5 3,4,5 1,2 1,2 1,2 2 1 2 Ground All Soil Clay Clay Clay All All Soil

75 200 mm dia Jacked 0.5 1 m long 75 100 mm dia Jacked 0.5 1 m long NX SX Up to 1 m Drilled Cut

Continuous 50 100 mm dia Jacked

Sample Disturbance
Should be minimum so that the parameters obtained should be representative Caused during drilling due to stress relief, swelling, compaction, piping and collapse of the borehole Caused during sampling by stress relief, remoulding, compaction, segregation, fracture, loss, friction Caused during transport and storage

Minimizing the Sample Disturbance

Swelling By minimizing the time of sampling Compaction By keeping the casing above the base of borehole Piping By maintaining a water balance Collapse By using casing or mud or by keeping the hole dry Distortion By using smooth clean tubes and thin walled sampler

Common Sampling Methods

Types of Samples

Disturbed Samples Disturbed samples are those obtained using equipment that destroy the macro structure of the soil but do not alter its mineralogical composition. For determining grain size, Atterberg limits, and compaction characteristics of soils disturbed samples are taken
Estimating the nature of the formation from the cuttings is like identifying the cow from the hamburgers. G.F. Sowers

Types of Samples

(Continued)

Undisturbed samples
Undisturbed samples are obtained in clay soil strata for use in laboratory testing to determine the engineering properties of those soils. Undisturbed samples of granular soils can be obtained, but often specialized procedures are required such as freezing or resin impregnation and block or core type sampling Specimens obtained by undisturbed sampling methods are used to determine the strength, stratification, permeability, density, consolidation, dynamic properties, and other engineering characteristics of soils

Testing
Laboratory Testing Field Testing

Laboratory Testing
Property of Soil Type of Test

Grain size distribution Consistency

Mechanical analysis Liquid limit (LL) Plastic limit (PL) Plasticity Index (PI)
Specific gravity Natural moisture content Field moisture equivalent

Unit weight Moisture

Compressibility

Consolidation

Laboratory Testing
Properties of Soil Shear Strength Cohesive soils Non cohesive soils General

(Continued)

Type of Test Unconfined compression Direct Shear Triaxial Shrinkage factors Volume change Expansion pressure Constant head Falling head Standard proctor Modified proctor CBR

Volume Change
Permeability Compaction characteristics California bearing ratio

Field Testing
Purpose of Test Compaction Control Type of Test Moisture density relation In-place density

Shear strength (soft clay)

Relative density (granular soil) Permeability Bearing capacity Pavement Footings Piles

Vane test
Penetration test Pumping test

CBR Plate bearing Plate bearing Load test

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

SPT are used for most of the soil types A cheap, simple and rapid test Most suitable for granular soils A split spoon sampler is used which is an open ended steel cylinder splitting longitudinally Most common size of sampler are I.D = 1.4 1.5 in O.D = 2.0 in Length = 2 ft Hammer wt. = 140 lbs Free drop = 30 in

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

(continued)

Penetration resistance is reported in no. of blows per feet The spoon is withdrawn and a representative sample is secured Samples are kept in airtight jars

Correlations of SPT Relative Density of Sand

N (blows/ft)
0-4 4-10 10-30 30-50 >50

Relative Density
Very Loose Loose Medium Dense Very Dense

Correlations of SPT Strength of Clay

N (blows/ft) <2
2-4 4-8 8 - 15 15 - 30 >30

Unconfined Compressive Strength (tons/ft2) <0.25

0.25 - 0.50 0.50 - 1.00 1.00 - 2.00 2.00 - 4.00 >4.00

Consistency

Very soft
Soft Medium Stiff Very Stiff Hard

Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

A cone is connected with standard rods and an electric cable The cone is pushed continuously into the ground and automatic measurements are taken of the force on the tip and sleeves Depth is also recorded Cone resistance qc and friction resistance fs are used together with charts to obtain soil parameters

Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

(continued)

Cone Penetration Test (CPT) (continued)

Rod dimensions are 36 mm dia, 600 mm long Cone has 600 angle, surface area = 10 cm2 Mostly used for fine to medium grained soils

Types of Pressuremeter
Pre-bored

Pressuremeter (PBP) Menard Pressuremeter (MPM) Elastometer (OYO) High Pressure Dilatometer (HPD) Self-bored Pressuremeter (SBP) Cambridge self-boring pressuremeter (CSBP) Pressuremeter Autoforuer Pushed-in Pressuremeter Cone Pressuremeter Stress Probe

Pressuremeters

Pressuremeter are probes that are installed into the ground below the borehole An expanding section is inflated and the displacement of the expanding section and the pressure required to cause that displacement are measured

Dilatometers
The flat plate dilatometer (DMT) is an in-situ test device with specific advantages that can useful on certain projects. However, it is not yet used as frequently as the cone penetration test (CPT) in engineering practice. A 60-mm diameter circular membrane on the flat face (95 mm wide by 220 mm long). This membrane is expanded after the DMT has been pushed to the desired depth.

Other Penetration Tests

DPT (Dynamic Probe) Mackintosh Probe Static Probes Friction Cone (Dutch Cone) Piezocone (CPTU)

Geophysical Tests
Ground Penetrating Radar Frequency Domain Electromagnetics Time Domain Electromagnetics Very Low Frequency EM Resistivity Spontaneous Potential Seismic Refraction Seismic Reflection Magnetic Gravity Thermal Radioactive Metal Detectors

Vane Shear Test

Consists of a Vane connected to the surface with rods. The vane is turned by a torque Used in soft to firm clays Rotation is used to measure the sensitivity of clay A rapid and simple method

Vane Shear Test

(continued)

T = c[d2h/2 + d3/6] where T = Torque required to shear the soil c = cohesion of clay d = dia h = height of vane

Ground Water Measurement

In sand or gravels - Clean the hole by horizontal jets - Use steel tape coated with chalk In silt or silty sand - Can be measured in several days In clays - Piezometer is used

How Many Borings & How Deep?

No hard-and-fast rule exists for determining the number of borings or the depth to which borings are to be advanced. But guidelines exist in Textbooks Design manuals

How Many Borings?

Conventional Wisdom
The number (density) of borings will increase: As soil variability increases As the loads increase For more critical/significant structures

Rules of Thumb:
Soft soils, critical structures 50' Soft Soils - Space 100' to 200' As soils become harder, spacing may be

increased up to 500

No. of Borings
Structure or Project Highway Subgrade Multistory Building Subsurface Spacing of Borings (ft) Variability

Irregular Average Uniform Irregular Average Uniform

100-1000 (200, typical)

200-2000 (500, typical) 400-4000 (1000, typical) 25-75 50-150

100-300
Source: Sowers 1979

No. Of Borings (continued)

Project
Distance Between Borings (ft.) Horizontal stratification of soil Uniform Average Erratic 200 100 50 Min. No. of Borings 3

1 or 2 story building

Multi-story buildings
Bridge,Pier,Abutment Highways Borrow pits

150

100
100

50
25 100 100-50

4
12

1000 1000-500

500 500-200

No. Of Borings (continued)

Area (acre)
< 10 10 49

Total No. of Borings

4 8

Deep Boring
1 2

50 99
100 200 > 200

14
20 24 plus 1 boring each additional 10 acre

4
5 6 plus 1 boring each additional 10 acre

No. Of Borings (continued)

Foundation Footprint Area / borehole Soil Condition (m2) Poor Average Good 100 300 200 400 300 1000 (ft2) 1000 3000 2000 4000 3000 10000

No. Of Borings
Project Spacing (m)

One story house

Multistory buildings

25 30
15 25

Highways/Railways
Earth Dams Residential sub-division

250 500
25 50 60 - 100

Depth of Boring

Highway and airfield Min. depth 5 ft Should extend below organic soil, muck, fill, or compressible layers Retaining walls Deeper than possible surface of sliding Deeper than width of base of wall Embankment and cuts Deeper than possible surface of sliding Equal to the width at bottom of cuts

How Deep (Bridges)?

Boring depth is governed by various factors, including: Foundation type Foundation load Lowering of grade line at underpass? Channel relocation, widening, dredging? Scour? Rules of Thumb Generally speaking, 50- 80 is reasonable Local experience is helpful Look at nearby structures if available If no experience or other info available, plan for long first hole, then adjust.

How Deep (Retaining Walls)?

Boring depth is governed by various factors, including:

Wall type (Fill vs. Cut) Lowering of grade line at wall? Scour?

Rules of Thumb (TxDOT):

Fill Walls: Soil Nailed Walls:
Drilled Shaft Walls:

Depth = Wall Height +/Depth = Through Nailed Area, plus 10 Depth = Exposed Wall Height plus 150% of Wall Height

Depth of Boring (continued)

Soil Condition Poor
Average Good

Minimum Depth of Boring (m) 6 x S0.7 + Df

5 x S0.7 + Df 3 x S0.7 + Df

S = No. of stories Df = Tentative depth of footing (m)

Depth of Boring (continued)

For embankments 1.5 to 2.0 times the height of embankment Should be sufficient to check possible shear failure and probable settlement For dams Should be such to explore all starta through which piping and seepage may occur Some borings up to rock bed with minimum 3 m into the rock

Depth of Boring

(continued)

For roads and airfields Up to depth of 2 3 m For embankment roads up to depth = 1.5 2.0 x height of embankment + 2 3 ft. For Pipelines 1 2 m below invert level For structural foundation 1.5 x width or up to good soil 10 % of the contact pressure

Rocks
Rocks are described from observation of natural outcrops, quarries, cuttings, excavations and rock cores. Description of rock material for engineering purposes generally follow the sequence below: Colour Grain Size Texture and Structure State of Weathering Rock Name Strength Other Characteristics or Parameters

Types of Rocks

Spacing of Discontinuities in Rocks

Spacing >2m 600mm-2m 200-600mm 60-200mm 20-60mm 6-20mm <6mm Structural Features Very thick Thick Medium Thin Very thin Thickly laminated Thinly laminated Discontinuities in One Dimension Very widely spaced Widely spaced Medium spaced Closely spaced Very closely spaced Extremely closely spaced Discontinuities in Three Dimensions Very large Large Medium Small Very small

Compressive Strength of Rock Material

Compressive Strength (MN/m2)
<1.25 1.25 5.0 5.0 12.5 12.5 50.0 50 100 100 200 >200

Description
Very weak Weak Moderately weak Moderately strong Strong Very strong Extremely strong

Rock Mass Classification

Terzaghis description Intact rock Stratified rock Moderately jointed rock Block and seamy rock Crushed but chemically intact rock Squeezing rock Swelling rock

Rock Coring
Double-tube core barrel is typical

Diamond or tungsten-carbide tooth bit

Size of core samples varies (NX, NQ, HQ,

etc.)

Rock Quality Designation (RQD)

RQD = Length of core pieces>10 cm long X 100 Total length of core run
The core should be at least NW size (2.15 in dia) Should be drilled with double-tube core barrel

Rock Quality Designation (RQD)

(continued)
RQD (%) < 25 25 50 50 75 75 90 90 - 100 Rock Quality Very poor Poor Fair Good Excellent

RQD = 115 3.3 Jv

Where Jv is sum of the No. of joints per unit length of all joints (Volumetric joint count)

Plotting of RQD Values

QUESTIONS