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PARTS OF AN AIRPLANE
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. FUSELAGE OR BODY THE WINGS OR LIFTING SURFACES TAIL SECTION OR EMPENNAGE PROPULSION SYSTEM UNDERCARRIAGE OR LANDING GEAR
CABIN SECTION A. B. C. ENGINE COMPARTMENT COCKPIT TRANSMISSION COMPARTMENT D. CABIN E. FUEL TANK COMPARTMENT F. BAGGAGE COMPARTMENT G. ELECTRICAL AND RADIO COMPARTMENT
WINGS
WW I Wood-Fabric Construction
Light weight material such as wood or bamboo was used for creating box structure. Chemically treated fabric was strapped around this hollow truss frame structure.
Diagonal wires strengthened wings and spar caps at the end conformed with the desired aerodynamic shape.
Weaker fabric was affected by weather and used to get damaged. So metal skin replaced the fabric.
Aluminum alloyed
stressed skin is riveted to the ribs and stringers.
WING RIB
Built
up metal rib is used in conjunction with metal spars & is riveted to them. Stamped ribs have holes cut in them reducing the weight of the rib.
Rib
As the aircraft is mvre or angle of attack changes, the centre of lift moves and produces large torsion loads on the wing. While weight is concentrated on fuselage, lift is produced along the full length of the wing, with generation of lift, the wing tends to bend upward from the root towards the tip.
Metal wing ribs are built by riveting together capstrips and cross members made of formed, thin sheets of al- alloy or pressed from al-alloy sheets.
Te is normally formed of al-alloy and ties the back end of the ribs together to give the wing its finished shape.
The truss is held together with high strength high solid steel wires that cross the bays formed by the compression struts. The wire running diagonally from inboard to outboard oppose the forces that tend to drag against the wing and pull it backward. (Drag wires) Wires that run between the front and rear spar and run diagonally from outboard to inboard oppose the force that tend to move the tip of wing forward (anti drag wires). A wing truss consisting of spars, compression members, drag and anti drag wires was covered with fabric. Box type spar was also used. Box structure between the spar can carry all of the bending and torsion loads.
Wings are generally evolved from the truss form of construction to one in which the outer skin carries the greatest amount of stresses.
Semi monocoque construction is generally used for the main portion of the wing. Monocoque form of construction is often used for control surfaces. Ribs are made of aluminum alloy sheets and riveted to the skin to give both shape and rigidity. All metal wing can carry all of the flight loads within the structure so no struts or braces are required. Internally braced wings not requiring external support are called cantilever wings.
The air foil section of a cantilever wing is normally quit thick and has strong centre section built in to the fuselage.
WING ATTACHMENT
Such an attachment depends on the strength of the wing structure. Strongest wing structure would permit full cantilever where wing is directly
attached to the fuselage. Most of the modern planes would use this type of attachment.
Wings Wings of modern aircrafts are invariably a semi monocoque structure. The structural members of a wing must be capable of resisting shear, bending and torsion loads. The loads directly act on the skin which transmits the load to the ribs. the ribs transmit the loads in shear to the spar webs and distribute the load between them. Modern wings are two spar construction consisting of a main spar and a secondary spar to locate various control surfaces, flaps, tabs etc.. The secondary spar also serves as a member of the torsion box.
FUSELAGE
Truss is an assembly of members forming a rigid frame work which may consist of bars, beams, rods, tubes and wires. All of them will not be able to carry all types of loads (wire can withstand only tension). In Pratt & Warren Truss primary strength members are 4 longerons (longitudinal members) with lateral bracing placed at intervals. These members are capable of carrying both compression as well as tension.
SEMI-MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE
It consists of framework of vertical and longitudinal members covered with structural skin which carries large % of stress imposed upon the fuselage. Vertical members are called frames or bulkhead and longitudinal members are called stringers. Stringers provide necessary stiffness to the skin to withstand stress. Between the principal members of the fuselage are lighter formers and rings to maintain uniform shape of the structure.
SEMI-MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE
Bulkhead or Frame The structural unit which transfers concentrated loads to the shell of an airplane fuselage is called a bulkhead or frame. These are attached to the fuselage skin continuously around their perimeter and are either solid webs with stiffeners with or without access holes or truss structures or more commonly open rings or frames. Bulkheads also provide column support to stingers. Ribs in wings do the same job in the wings as bulkheads in the fuselage. Fuselage shells are normally symmetrical about a vertical center line and are loaded symmetrical wrt the centerline.
MONOCOQUE STRUCTURE
In full monocoque fuselage structure construction involves construction of a metal tube or cone without internal structural members. In some cases former rings may be necessary to retain shape but these are not load bearing members. Very often construction of large fuselage is by riveting two halves together. Occasionally internal pressurized tanks are used for structural support. Such construction is common for missile configurations.
EMPENNAGE
oStabilizers and control surfaces are
also constructed in similar fashion but on a much smaller scale.
CONTROL SURFACES
CONTROL SURFACE
The control surfaces produce aerodynamic forces to redirect an aircrafts flight path.
Primary controls i.e elevator , aileron and rudder. Secondary controls i.e trim tabs. Aux controls i.e flaps, slats, spoilers etc.
To keep the weight minimum, the earlier control surfaces were covered with thin cotton or linen fabric.
All new a/c have their control surfaces covered with either thin al-alloy, mg-alloy sheets or advanced composite materials. Now days sandwich foam or honeycomb composite structures are mostly used.
Rudders are attached to the fin with hinge pins through steel tubes welded to both the fin and the rudder.
The horizontal stabilizer bolts to the fuselage and held rigid with high strength steel wires. Elevators are hinged to the stabilizers TE like the rudders. Ailerons are built in same way as wings and conforms to the shape of the rear end of wing former ribs. The hinge line of aileron is usually behind its leading edge.
AIRFOIL CONTROLS
PRIMARY CONTROLS
The ailerons and elevators are generally operated from the cockpit by a control stick on single engine aircrafts and by a wheel and yoke assembly on multiengine aircrafts. The rudders are operated by foot pedals on all types of aircraft.
AILERON
They are primary flight control surface used to provide lateral (roll) control of the a/c. They are usually mounted on the TE of the wing near the tip and rigged so that when one is moving upward on one wing, the other is moving downward on opposite wing. Downward moving aileron increase the camber and lift and the upward moving aileron decrease the camber and lift. Leftward movement on the stick, or wheel in cockpit raises the left aileron and lower the right, thereby banking the plane to the left.
ADVERSE YAW A condition of flight at the beginning of the turn in which the nose of an airplane momentarily yaws from the direction in which the turn is to be made. When a/c is subjected to a roll to the left, the down going port wing will experience a new relative wind and increase AOA. The inclination of lift vector produces a component force fwd on the down going wing. The up going wing has its lift inclined with a component force aft. The resulting yawing moment is opposite to role and hence is adverse yaw.
The aileron of an a/c are rigged for differential control, causing the up moving aileron to move a greater distance than down moving aileron. The differential is sufficient to bal the drag between the aileron, thus eliminating yaw.
Frise aileron:
An aileron with its hinge line set back from the leading edge, so that when it is deflected upward, part of the leading edge projects below the wing and produces parasitic drag to help overcome adverse yaw. Rudder aileron interconnecting spring:- Since aileron drag is produced each time the control wheel deflects the aileron, many mfrs connect wheel to the rudder control sys through an inter connecting spring. When wheel is moved to produce right roll, the interconnect cable and spring pulls forward on right rudder pedal just enough to prevent the nose of airplane yawing to the left.
Spoilers are plates on the top surface of a wing which can be extended upward into the airflow and spoil it. By doing so, the spoiler creates a carefully controlled stall over the portion of the wing behind it, greatly reducing the lift of that wing section. Flaps change the camber of the wing aerofoil section and/or increase the chord. Improving lift characteristics at the expense of increased drag and wing torque.
Flaperons:
Control surface which serve as both aileron and wing flaps mainly on swept wing airplane. Ailerons that are rigged to serve as ailerons or flaps are also called flaperons. When employed as ailerons, flaperons move in opposite direction. The use of flaperons allows the wings to vary the camber.
During low-speed flight all lateral control surfaces operate to provide maximum stability. This includes all four ailerons, flaps and spoilers. At high speeds flaps are retracted and the out board ailerons are locked out of the aileron control system. The out board ailerons are made up of a nose spar and ribs covered with aluminum honeycomb. The inboard ailerons are much thicker and is of honeycomb structure. Spoilers are sometimes used when descending from cruise altitudes to assist the aircraft in descending to lower altitudes without picking up speed. On landing however, the spoilers are nearly always used at full effect to assist in slowing the aircraft.
Elevators:
They provide for pitching movement/longitudinal control around the lateral axis. A backward pull on the control stick or on the wheel column raises the elevators, thereby depressing the tail and lifting the nose of the a/c for the climb. Fwd motion of the stick produces opposite effect. They are normally attached to the hinges on the rear spar of the horizontal stabilizer. The Eng determines the rate of climb of a/c rather than the posn of elevator. If the elevators are held at in affixed position, the throttle alone can be used to make climb or dive. The posn of the elevator is important, to establish most efficient ROC and good gliding angle when power is off. It is almost essential when breaking the glide and holding airplane in landing posn. The TE of elevator may have a trim tab to adjust the down load of tail for hands off flying at any desired airspeed. Another means of trimming is to adjust the entire horizontal stabilizer by
Elevons:The control surface that functions as both an elevator and an aileron. Hinged control surfaces on the wing TE of delta wing a/c which are moved in unison to act as elevator and differentially as ailerons. They are especially needed for all wing airplanes or flying wing.
Stabilators:The controls are same type as those with elevators. The main difference with elevators control sys is that the entire horizontal surface pivots when ctrl forces are applied. It is an all moving tail that works by changing the AOA of ctrl surface and there by changing the amount of downward lift generated by the tail. It is an aerofoil that replaces the normal elevator and serves as a elevator as well as stabilizer.
RUDDERS
It is a vertical control surface that is usually hinged to the tail post of the vertical stabilizer. It is designed to apply yawing movements to the air plane that is left or right move. It is operated by pedals operated by feet. When right pedal is pressed, the rudder swing to the right, thus bringing an increase of dynamic air pressure on its right side. This increased pressure causes the aircraft to swing to the left and nose to turn to the right. When rudder is applied in flight, the aircraft will turn, but continue to travel in same direction as before unless a correcting force is applied. Thus with rudder only, the aircraft will turn sideways and skid. In order to prevent skid in a turn, the ailerons are used to bank the airplane.
RUDDER VATORS
Movable control surfaces on a V-tail a/c that are controlled by both the rudder pedal and control yoke. When the yoke is moved in and out, the ruddervators move together and acts as rudder. Ruddervators provide the same control effect as conventional control surfaces, but through a more complex control system that actuates the control surfaces in unison. Yaw moving the nose to the left is produced on an upright V tail by moving the pedals left which deflects the left-hand ruddervator down and left and the right-hand ruddervator up and left. The opposite produces yaw to the right. Pitch nose up is produced by moving the control column or stick back which deflects the left-hand ruddervator up and right and the right-hand ruddervator up and left. Pitch nose down is produced by moving the control column or stick forward which induces the opposite ruddervator movements
AUXILIARY CONTROLS
TRIM TABS Small moveable portion of the TE of a control surface. They are controlled from the cockpit to alter the camber of the surface and create an aerodynamic force that will hold the control surfaces deflected. They can be installed on any primary control surfaces. Normally on the elevator, to permit adjustment of the tail load so that a/c can be flown hands off at any given speed.
BALANCE TABS
It is used to decrease excessively high control forces in some a/c. Loc in the same place as trim tab. Control rod is connected to the fixed surface on the same side as the horn on the tab. If the control surface is deflected upward, the connecting linkage will pull the tab down. When tab moves in opposite direction of the control surface, it will create a aerodynamic force that aids the movement of control surface.
SERVO TABS
Large a/c use hydraulic actuators to operate control surfaces . An artificial feel sys gives resistance to pilot which is proportional to the flight loads on the control surfaces. In case of hydraulic sys failure, the control surfaces are controlled by servo-tabs. (Manual reversion) In manual mode, the flt control column moves the tab on control surface, and aerodynamic forces caused by deflected tab move the main control surface.
SPRING TABS
It aids the pilot of high speed a/c.
Control horn is free to pivot on the hinge axis of control surface, but is restrained by a spring. When control forces are light, spring is not extended, the horn acts as a rigid link.
At high speed when control surfaces are too high, the spring extends and the control horn deflects the tab to produce an aerodynamic force that aids the pilot.
GROUND ADJUSTABLE TABS Many small airplanes have a non-movable metal trim tabs on the rudder. The tab is adjusted on ground to apply a trim force to the rudder. The correct adjustment is when the a/c is no longer skidding left or right during cruising flight.
SECONDARY CONTROLS
Merely sections of the TE of the wing, inboard in the ailerons. They are of same size of aileron and are hinged so they can be deflected, usually in moment of 10,25 and 40 degree. Effect is minimum, hardly used on modern planes.
SPLIT FLAPS
A portion of the lower surface of the trailing edge of the wing from one aileron to the other, could be hinged down in to the airstream. Lift changes are similar to that of plain flaps.
SLOTTED FLAPS
Most commonly used. The lift coefficient increase much more as compared to plain flaps. When the flap is lowered, there is a tendency for the airflow to break from its surface, air from the high pressure area below the wing flows up through the slot and blows back over the top of the flap. This high energy flow pulls air down and prevents flap stalling. Large a/c use double/ triple slotted flaps to allow maximum increase in drag without airflow separation and destroy any lift they produce.
FOWLER FLAP
They are type of slotted flap. It changes the camber of wing and also the wing surface area, thereby increasing lift Instead of rotating down on a hinge, it slides backwards on tracks. It increase the drag vary little, but increasing the lift a great deal as it increase both the area and camber. As the extension continue, the flaps deflects downwards and during the last portion of its travel, it increase the drag with little increase in lift.
A slot i.e a duct in the LE for air to flow from below to top in a high volume stream. Is utilized for delaying stalling. It is also used ahead of the aileron to keep the outer portion of wing flying after root has stalled, this keeps the aileron effective and provides lateral control during most of the stall.
SLOTS
Many high performance airplanes have a portion of wing LE mounted on tracks to create a duct. As the AOA increase, the low pressure just behind the LE on top of wing increase and pulls the slat out of wing. When slat moves, it ducts air from high press below to the upper surface and increase volume of the air in the boundary layer. These slats prevents the airflow breaking way from upper surface when the TE flaps increase the camber of the wing.
METHODS TO REDUCE
TIP FUEL TANKS
WINGLETS.
STALL STRIPS
IT IS IMPORTANT THAT WING STALL AT THE ROOT JUST SO THAT AILERON WILL STILL BE ABLE TO PROVIDE LATERAL CONTROL THROUGH OUT STALL. IT CAN BE DONE BY INSTALLING SMALL TRIANGULAR STRIPS ON LE OF THE WING IN ROOT AREA. WHEN AOA IS INCREADED ENOUGH FOR STALL TO OCCUR, THE STRIPS PROVIDES ENOUGH AIR DISTURBANCE TO HASTEN THE STALL ON SECTION OF WING BEHIND THEM. THIS LESS OF LIFT WILL DIP THE NOSE OF A/C WHILE OUTER PORTION OF WING IS STILL FLYING AND AILERONS ARE EFFECTIVE. THIS WILL CAUSE VIBRATION AND GIVE FEELING TO PILOT OF IMPEDING STALL.
SPOILERS
ARE CONTROL DEVICES THAT DESTROY LIFT BY DISRUPTING THE AIRFLOW OVER AIR PORTION OF THE WING. SIMPLE STRUCTURAL SLABS. WHEN OPERATED BY THE PILOT, THEY SWING UPWARD IN TO THE AIR STREAM, THEREBY REDUCING LIFT ON A PORTION OF WING, THEREBY ALLOWING INCRESED ROD, WHILE STILL MAINTAINING SPEED AND DIRECTION CONTROL. WHEN RETRACTED, THEY FOLD DOWN TO ELIMINATE THE DISRUPTED AIR FLOW AND DRAG. TPT A/C USE SPOILERS AS A PART OF SECONDARY FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM IN AID TO AILERONS, TO RELIEVE CONTROL PRESSURE AND TO INCREASE OR DECREASE LIFT. ALSO USED AS SPEED BRAKES BY INCREASED PARASITIC DRAG. ON GROUND USED TO INCREASE BRAKING EFFICIENCY
VORTEX GENERATORS
STALLS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH AOA BUT SHOCK INDUCED STALL OCCURS DUE TO CRITICAL MACH NUMBER. A SHOCKWAVE TYPICALLY FIRST FORMS ON THE UPPER CAMBER OF THE WING AND TENDS TO OSCILLATE BACK AND FORTH RESULTING IN SEPARATION OF FLOW. LOW ASPECT RATIO AIR FOILS ARRANGED IN PAIRS AT THE POINT WHERE SEPERATION IS LIKELY TO OCCUR. THE TIP VORTICES OF THESE AIR FOILS PULLS HIGH ENERGY AIR DOWN IN TO THE BOUNDARY LAYER, PREVENTING SEPARATION.
WING STATION(WS) : - TO LOCATE POINT ON THE WING OF AN AEROPLANE, THE WING STATION (WS) NUMBERS ARE MEASURED FROM THE CENTRE LINE OF THE FUSELAGE WHICH IS ALSO CALLED THE BUTT LINE (BL). WING STATION ARE INDICATED IN INCHES EITHER RIGHT OR THE LEFT OF THE FUSELAGE CENTRE LINE. WATER LINE:-
THE WATER LINE (WL) IS A LINE ESTABLISHED FOR LOCATING THE STATIONS ON A VERTICAL LINE .
VERTICAL MEASUREMENTS ON AN AIRPLANE MAY BE EITHER POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE , DEPENDING UPON WHETHER THE POINT IS ABOVE OR BELOW THE WATER LINE. WL STATIONS ARE USED TO LOCATE POSITION ON THE LANDING GEAR , VERTICAL STABILIZER AND AT ANY OTHER POINT AT WHICH IT IS NECESSARY TO LOCATE A VERTICAL DISTANCE.
BUTT LINE(BL):THE BUTT LINE IS THE CENTERLINE OF THE FUSELAGE. POSITION ON THE HORIZONTAL STABILIZER AND ELEVATOR ARE GIVEN BUTT LINE STATION NUMBERS. COMPONENT STATIONS:SOME A/C COMPONENTS ARE GIVEN THEIR OWN STATION REFERENCE LINE e.g.AN AILERON MAY HAVE AILERON STATION ESTABLISHED ACROSS ITS SPAN STARTING WITH AILERON STATION(AS)0.00 LOCATED AT THE INBOARD EDGE OF THE AILERON . POSITIONS OUT BOARD OF THE INBOARD STATIONS ARE INDICATED IN INCHES. OTHER EXAMPLES MAY INCLUDE ENGINE STATIONS , AND VERTICAL STABILIZER / RUDDER STATIONS. NACELLE BUTT LINE(NBL):IT IS ESTABLISHED AT THE CENTER LINE OF THE NACELLE FOR LOCATING POSITION IN THE NACELLE.
ZONING:-
A ZONE IS IDENTIFIED BY ONE OF THE THREE INDICATORS:1. MAJOR ZONE, 2. MAJOR SUB ZONE , 3. SIMPLE ZONE. MAJOR ZONE ARE IDENTIFIED BY THREE DIGIT NUMBERS e.g. 100,200,300 MAJOR ZONE ARE DIVIDED INTO MAJOR SUB ZONE BY THE ADDITION OF THE SECOND NON ZERO DIGIT TO A MAJOR ZONE NUMBER e.g. THE 300 MAY BE SUB ZONED IN TO SUBZONES 310,320,330.etc. SUBZONES ARE DIVIDED BY THE USE OF A THIRD NON ZERO DIGIT IN THREE DIGIT NUMBERS, THE SUB ZONE 320 MAY BE DIVIDED IN TO ZONES 321,322,323,etc. BY REFERRING TO ZONE NUMBER ON THE INSTRUCTIONS THE TECHNICIAN CAN EASILY LOCATE THE AREA IN WHICH INSP OR MAINT IS TO BE DONE.