REPORT WRITING

Rajnish Kumar
Professor IT
National Academy of Indian Railways

Structure of Presentation

Format of a Report

About Plagiarism

How to cite references

Use of Latin terms

Common spelling errors

Common language errors

Format of Report/Paper
What should a report contain?
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Cover page Inner cover page Acknowledgments Contents List of symbols, figures and tables, if any Preface Introduction Literature review Chapters covering the work Conclusion References Appendices

Preface
The preface should contain information about: The purpose of the report The history of the project Major contents of the report

in about 500-1000 words

Introduction
The introduction should comprise: A short historical review A brief description of the methods The limitations of the report Information on accuracy of the given data Structure of the report.

Mechanics of Report
only a guide
Paper Margins A4 size 1.5 inch left 1 inch right, top and bottom Font Times New Roman 12 size Heading Font Arial 14 Second heading Times New Roman or Arial 12 Bold Third heading Times New Roman or Arial 12 Italics Spacing 1.5 Best is to use standard word DEFAULT Style set

General Guidelines
1. All tables and figures must be numbered 2. If abbreviations which are uncommon are used, list of abbreviations should be prepared and placed after list of table/figures 3. Pages should be numbered starting from Introduction, not before that. 4. Consistent spacing must be given throughout the report.

Reformatting Report for publishing in Journals

If the report is to be published in a journal, some reformatting is required. Most of it is common, except that some journals prefer their style. Example of IIMB Management Review is taken which is published by worlds leading publisher, ELSEVEIR

Example of formatting for IIMB Management Review

Format Cover page The manuscript should be accompanied by a cover page containing the article title, the short title (not more than 5 words and which may be used in all correspondence), the names and affiliations of all the authors (specify order), along with their postal address, phone and fax numbers, and email address. Details of the authors' name and affiliation should not appear elsewhere in the manuscript. In the case of multiple authors, the cover page should indicate the designated corresponding author.

Example of formatting for IIMB Management Review

Second page The second page should contain the article title, the short title, the abstract (not more than 100 words), keywords (a maximum of 8 keywords), and an extended summary (not exceeding 300 words). Body of the article: The recommended length of papers is 8000 10000 words, inclusive of tables and figures. Material may be formatted in Times New Roman, font size 12 and double spaced.

All tables and figures are to be serially numbered, sequentially following references to them in the text. All tables and figures are also to be presented in a separate WORD document and file names should clearly specify the paper to which the exhibits belong. All tables and figures should be in black and white only.
IMR follows British spelling (e.g.: organisation, programme, and colour), except in the case of direct quotations. Wherever possible, explanatory theories/concepts and other background material of a historical or collateral nature, and case illustrations/anecdotal applications should be presented in text boxes to ensure they do not interfere with the flow of the main text.

Example of formatting for IIMB Management Review

References Authors must acknowledge all the sources they have drawn upon, including direct quotations, as well as ideas, concepts, data, and exhibits. Only those references cited in the main text should be listed in the reference list. Sources should be stated briefly in the text, following the author-date convention of by the last name and the date of publication, in parentheses. Citations within the text would read, for e.g. According to Pawlak, (1991) or (Pawlak, 1991) . These citations should be amplified in a list of references appearing at the end of the paper. The reference list should be in alphabetical and chronological order, and should include complete bibliographical details, as appropriate the name(s) of the author(s), year of publication, title of the article/book, name of the journal, details of the publisher, volume and issue number, and individual page numbers, URL of online sources (online journals, magazines, or newspapers) with access date.

Example of formatting for IIMB Management Review

The prescribed style of citation is as follows:

Sample Book References:

Pawlak, Z. (1991). Rough sets: Theoretical aspects of reasoning about data. Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (6th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. Sample Reference to Chapter in Book: Ravallion, M. (2007). Transfers and safety nets in poor countries: Revisiting the trade-offs and policy options. In V. Abhijit, R. B. Banerjee, & D. Mukherjee (Eds.), Understanding poverty (pp. 203 230). Oxford University Press. Sample Journal Reference: Bose, I. (2006). Deciding the financial health of dot-coms using rough sets. Information & Management, 43(7), 835 846.

So
If you follow one style, there is no effort in converting a report into a paper ready for being published. Well cover on how to quote references in the report in the next part,

avoiding plagiarism

Avoiding Plagiarism

Plagiarism Definition
Taking and using the thoughts, writings, and inventions of another person as one's own
Using someones ideas without citing or quoting; thereby, receiving credit for someone elses intellectual effort
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Forms of plagiarism
Copying from a single source
Copying from several sources Paraphrasing Collusion
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How to avoid plagiarism

Use quotes for
Information that comes directly from any source Words, spoken or written, that you use directly from another person

Make sure you document the source

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How to avoid plagiarism

Paraphrase
Write the information in your own words, but do not change its meaning or intention Because you are using someone elses idea, always mention the source even if you use your own words

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Common knowledge
Any information, fact, or statement that is widespread and known by a variety of people is considered common knowledge
John Adams was the second president of USA The Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941

There is no need to give credit to information that is of common knowledge

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No need to cite Common knowledge

Examples of Common Knowledge (Source: http://gethelp.library.upenn.edu/PORT/documentation/commonknowledge.html

Not every fact in the report needs to be documented. Facts that are widely knowncommon knowledgecan stand by themselves. Examples of statements expressing common knowledge:

George Washington was the first president. Plato spent most of his life in Athens. Maine has a lower yearly average temperature than Florida.
Any statement that originates from another source and contains information that is not common knowledge must be cited.
Examples of statements that don't express common knowledge:

Civilizations that were aware of geese usually considered them intermediaries between heaven and earth (Toussaint-Samat 352).

The Chinese fishing industry produces 800,000 tons of fish annually (ToussaintSamat 328).
The first international coffee syndicate was based in Germany (Toussaint-Samat 590).
These statements aren't surrounded by quotation marks because they aren't the original authors' words but must be cited because they express information that involves facts that are not commonly known.

When should I cite?

Is it your idea?

Yes

No Is it common knowledge? No need to cite

No

CITE

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Accidental plagiarism
Using words from another source without indicating where they came from. Ways to avoid accidental plagiarism:
Careful note taking A clear understanding of the rules for quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing sources

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When in doubt, cite. Read this

https://www.writecheck.com/static/ways_to_avoid_plagiarism.html

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Plagiarism detection software

http://turnitin.com/

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Terminology: Fair Use

Fair Use is a statute under copyright law that allows for the use of limited portions of a work that has copyright without having to have permission from the original author. It was created for the purposes of education and research.
BIG QUESTION, what qualifies as a "limited portion"?

How to Quote in a Report

Two styles MLA- Modern Language Association

APA American Psychological Association

MLA Quotations
Indirect: Some researchers note that "children are totally insensitive to their parents' shyness" (Zimbardo 62). Direct: Zimbardo notes that children are totally insensitive to their parents shyness (62). Paraphrasing: Some researchers have observed that children seem unaware that their parents are considered bashful (Zimbardo 62).

APA or Chicago Quotations

Indirect: Some researchers note that "children are totally insensitive to their parents' shyness" (Zimbardo, 1977, p.62). Direct: Zimbardo (1977) notes that Children are totally insensitive to their parents shyness (p. 62).

Paraphrasing: Some researchers have observed that children seem oblivious to their parents bashfulness (Zimbardo, 1977).

MLA Citations
Book Zimbardo, Philip G. Shyness: What It Is, What To Do About It. Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus Books, 1977. Print. Essay/Chapter in a Book Swanson, Gunnar. "Graphic Design Education as a Liberal Art: Design and Knowledge in the University and The 'Real World.'" The Education of a Graphic Designer. Ed. Steven Heller. New York: Allworth Press, 1998. 13-24. Print.
** Many of these examples came from the OWL at Purdue **

MLA Citations
Article Bagchi, Alaknanda. "Conflicting Nationalisms: The Voice of the Subaltern in Mahasweta Devi's Bashai Tudu." Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature 15.1 (1996): 4150. Print. Article from a Database

Langhamer, Claire. Love and Courtship in MidTwentieth-Century England. Historical Journal 50.1 (2007): 173-96. ProQuest. Web. 27 May 2009.
** Many of these examples came from the OWL at Purdue **

MLA Citations
Entire Website The Purdue OWL Family of Sites. The Writing Lab and OWL at Purdue and Purdue U, 2008. Web. 6 September 2012. Page on a Website "How to Make Vegetarian Chili." eHow.com. eHow, n.d. Web. 24 Feb. 2012.
** Many of these examples came from the OWL at Purdue **

APA Citations
Book Zimbardo, P.G. (1977). Shyness: What it is, what to do about it. Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus Books. Essay/Chapter in a Book O'Neil, J. M., & Egan, J. (1992). Men's and women's gender role journeys: Metaphor for healing, transition, and transformation. In B. R. Wainrib (Ed.), Gender issues across the life cycle (pp. 107-123). New York: Springer.
** Many of these examples came from the OWL at Purdue **

APA Citations
Article Scruton, R. (1996). The eclipse of listening. The New Criterion, 15(30), 5-13. Article from a Database APA does not require that a citation for an article in a database document that fact. You can cite an article you find in a database the same way youd cite a regular print article, as in the example above.
** Many of these examples came from the OWL at Purdue **

APA Citations
Website Lowe, M. (2012). Megan Lowe @ ULM. January 29, 2012, from http://www.ulm./edu/~lowe. Item Without Author Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: MerriamWebster.
** Many of these examples came from the OWL at Purdue **

Presentation Resources
The Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL) http://owl.english.purdue.edu/ Harvard Guide to Using Sources http://isites.harvard.edu/icb/icb.do?keyword=k70847&pageid=icb.page3 42054 https://www.writecheck.com/static/common_grammar_mistakes.html http://www.apastyle.org/ http://www.mla.org/

! ? ; : ,
Tips on Punctuation

. _ {} () /

Adapted from The Craft of Editing (Springer-Verlag, 2000) and The Craft of Scientific Writing, 3rd edition (Springer-Verlag, 1996).

Punctuation rules are designed to have sentences be read one way

Colon: a colon introduces a formal list, long quotation, equation, or definition. Semi-Colon: a semi-colon either joins two independent clauses (closely linked in thought) or separates complex items in a list. Dash: a dash acts as a parenthesis to separate items that cannot be separated by commas. Comma: a comma separates details in a sentence.

A colon introduces a formal list, long quotation, equation, or definition

We studied five types of marsupials: opossums, bandicoots, koalas, wombats, and kangaroos. The laboratory growth of this crystal made possible a new astronomical tool: a gamma-ray detector with high-energy resolution.
In formal writing, what is on the left side of the colon should stand alone as a separate sentence. Once the list ends, the sentence ends.

Although equations are separated by white space, they should be treated as part of the sentence
To calculate the strain, , we used equation 1:

E where is the stress estimated by FEPC and E is the modulus of elasticity of aluminum.

(1)

Em-dashes act as parentheses to separate items that commas cannot

Because two isotopes of hydrogendeuterium and tritiumare lightweight, can be produced easily, and require little energy, they are prime candidates to begin the fusion process.
After one year, we measured mirror reflectivity at 96 percenta high percentage, but not as high as originally expected.

Because two isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium) are lightweight, can be produced easily, and require little energy, they are prime candidates to begin the fusion process. After one year, we measured mirror reflectivity at 96 percent (a high percentage, but not as high as originally expected).

Commas separate introductory phrases and clauses

After cooling the exhaust gases continue to expand.

After cooling, the exhaust gases continue to expand.

Commas separate parenthetical details

X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively inexpensive require the operators attention.

X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively inexpensive, require the operators attention.

Parenthetical: Set off within or as if within parentheses; qualifying or explanatory

An error of ,
Possession Misplaced modifiers are also very common grammar mistakes:

Incorrect: The girl smiled at the camera holding the basket of fruit. (The camera was holding the basket of fruit?)

Correct: Holding the basket of fruit, the girl smiled at the

camera.

Hyphenation
We built a high-performance implementation. high-performance is hyphenated because high modifies performance not implementation. It's not a high implementation. Here, high-performance is an adjective. But: Our implementation has high performance. Here, performance is a noun. No hyphen. Similarly: throughput-oriented workloads or GPU-based implementation. For some words, it's not clear if it should be hyphenated or not (e.g. e-mail vs. email). The general trend in English is to move toward non-hyphenation (e.g. to-morrow became tomorrow).
http://www.ece.ucdavis.edu/~jowens/commonerrors.html

Semi Colon ;;;;

Use the semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more of the units contain commas. Example: This conference has people who have come from Boise, Idaho; Los Angeles, California; and Nashville, Tennessee. It is preferable to use a semicolon before introductory words such as namely, however, therefore, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance when they introduce a complete sentence. It is also preferable to use a comma after the introductory word. Examples: You will want to bring many backpacking items; for example, sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing will make the trip better. As we discussed, you will bring two items; i.e., a sleeping bag and a tent are not optional.
http://www.grammarbook.com/

Apostrophes
Apostrophe errors are also common. Apostrophes are used to show possession, to show that certain words are plural, and to show that letters are missing. Apostrophes show possession:
Jim's coat (singular possession) The children's clothes (possession for plural noun that does not end in s) The dogs' toys (possession for plural nouns that end in s) Jim and Ted's apartment (possession shown on the last noun)

Apostrophes are also used in contractions to show missing letters and numbers:
Can't (cannot) I'm (I am) Who's (Who is) 70 (1970)

Also, when writing the 70s, no apostrophe is present after the number when no possession is being shown.
https://www.writecheck.com/static/common_grammar_mistakes.html

Two common usage errors are possessives and subject-verb disagreements

The criteria for assessing the environmental effects of acid rain (are / is) given in the next section. So far, the daily number of engineers applying (has / have) remained constant. The goggles protect a (persons / persons) eyes from any damaging effects that a laser could cause. In accordance with my (boss / bosss) schedule, the first series of computers was replaced.

are

has
persons bosss

http://writing.engr.psu.edu/handbook/visuals.html

The verb tenses of sentences that refer to the document depend upon position
Introduction This report presents a design for connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller. Results and Discussion ...Figure 1 shows the circuit that connects the light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller. Conclusions This report has presented a design for connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller. As was shown in Figure 1, the circuit...

Use numerals when referring to measurements

When to use numerals Specific measurements Percentages Monetary figures Large numerals 3 volts, 2 seconds, 1 m/s 15 percent $3000 5 million

When to write out numbers Counting (one or two words) twenty-three gages

Informal measurements
First word of sentence

two hours
Thirty-three...

Certain words are commonly misused

We produced a small (amount, number) of autos this year, even (fewer, less) than last year. A companys success depends on (its / it's) employees.

number fewer

its

The new material is (composed / comprised) of plastic and iodine.

composed

It appears (as if, like) the Department of Energy will choose the third option.

as if

Certain words are commonly misused

Reduced weight was the (principal / principle) reason for choosing aluminum. principal

The talk centered (around / on) the (principal / principle) of virtual work.

on principle

(Regrettably / Regretfully), the launch was delayed because Regrettably of thunderstorms. You need not proceed any (farther / further) on your test. The serum had serious side (affects / effects). effects

further

Non-words and nonsensical groupings of words also cause problems

Whichever design you choose is (alright / all right) with me. (Irregardless / Regardless) of the shipping delay, the work will stop because of the strike. Applying that set of constraints is a (most unique / unique / very unique) way to approach the problem. The serum had (alot / a lot) of side effects.

all right
Regardless

unique

a lot

Spelling mistakes
Spell check is not the solution
affect effect a fact whether weather theyre their there your youre yore two to too its its

Possible confusion

accept/except affect/effect assure/ensure/insure enquire/inquire Practice (noun) /practise (verb) recent/resent Weather/whether Lose/loose

Common Mistakes in Language

accept vs except Accept is a verb, which means to agree to take something . For example: "I always accept good advice." Except is a preposition or conjunction, which means not including. For example: "I teach every day except Sunday(s)." advice vs advise Advice is a noun, which means an opinion that someone offers you about what you should do or how you should act in a particular situation. For example: "I need someone to give me some advice." Advise is a verb, which means to give information and suggest types of action. For example: "I advise everybody to be nice to their teacher." !Often in English the noun form ends in ...ice and the verb form ends in ...ise.

affect vs effect

Affect and effect are two words that are commonly confused. affect is usually a verb (action) - effect is usually a noun (thing) Hint: If it's something you're going to do, use "affect." If it's something you've already done, use "effect." To affect something or someone. Meaning: to influence, act upon, or change something or someone. For example: The noise outside affected my performance. To have an effect on something or someone !Note: effect is followed by the preposition on and preceded by an article (an, the) Meaning: to have an impact on something or someone. For example: His smile had a strange effect on me. !Effect can also mean "the end result". For example: The drug has many adverse side effects.

complement (v) vs Complement is a verb, which means to make compliment something seem better or more attractive when (n) combined. For example: "The colours blue and green complement each other perfectly." Compliment is a noun, which means a remark that expresses approval, admiration or respect. For example: "It was the nicest compliment anyone had ever paid me." Tip! Having problems with your spelling? Try these mnemonics:If it complements something it completes it. (With an e.) I like compliments. (With an i.)

decent vs descent

Decent is an adjective meaning socially acceptable or good.

For example: Everyone should be entitled to a decent standard of living. Descent is a noun which can mean a movement downwards, or your ancestry. For example: The plane began its final descent prior to landing. / "She found out that she was of Welsh descent."

for vs The prepositions for and since are since often used with time expressions. For indicates a period of time. For example: I have been working here for 2 years. Since indicates a point in time. For example: I have been working here since the year before last.

loose vs lose

Loose is an adjective. If something isn't fixed properly or it doesn't fit, because it's too large, it's loose. For example:My headphones weren't working, because a wire was loose. Lose is a verb that means to no longer possess something because you do not know where it is, or because it has been taken away from you. For example: A lot of people will lose their job if there is a recession.

principal vs Principal as an adjective means first in order of importance: principle For example: The Mississippi is the principal river of the United States.

Principal as a noun can mean the head teacher in a school or college:

For example: The teacher sent the unruly student to see the principal.

Principal as a noun can also mean the original amount of a debt on which interest is calculated
For example: She lives off the interest and tries to keep the principal intact.

Principle is a noun which means a basic idea, standard of behaviour or rule that explains or controls how something happens or works:
For example: The country works on the principle that all citizens have equal rights.

personal vs personnel

Personal is an adjective.

It can mean relating to or belonging to someone.

For example: Your personal belongings are the things that belong to you. It can relate to the private parts of someone's life, including their relationships and feelings. Personnel is a noun. The people who work for an organisation are the personnel. For example: military personnel are the members of an army. The department of an organisation that deals with finding people to work there, keeping records about them, etc is the Personnel Department.

stationary vs stationery

Stationary means standing still or not moving For example: "The car was stationary." Stationery means the items needed for writing, such as paper, pens, pencils and envelopes. For example: "It is the secretary's job to order the stationery?" !'e' is for envelopes 'a' is for automobiles.

there, There can be used as an adjective of place:their, For example: "The car is over there in the car park." they're There can also be used as the introductory subject in sentences:For example: "There are some grammar pages on this web site." They're is the a contraction of "they are". For example: "They're always surfing the Internet." Their is a possessive pronoun like "her" or "our". For example: "Have they done their homework?" Example: "There's a large family in this town. Look they're over there by their car."

!If you've written "they're," ask yourself whether you can substitute "they are." If not, you've made a mistake. There" has "here" inside it to remind you it refers to a place, while "their" has "heir" buried in it to remind you that it has to do with possession.

Common Spelling Mistakes I

Correct
supersede

Wrong
supercede superceed

Correct
pronunciation

Wrong
pronounciation

accommodation accomodation separate acommodation receive recieve necessary

seperate

neccesary necesary

definitely

definately difinately

address

adress adres

Common Spelling Mistakes II

Correct Wrong Correct Wrong

occurrence

occurence

useful

usefull

independent

independant

beginning

begining

questionnaire questionaire

parallel

paralel paralell parrallel

http://www.learnenglish.de/spelling/CommonSpellingMistakes.htm

Many more such errors

Good Places to learn http://www.learnenglish.de/mistakes/CommonMistakes.h tm http://www.engvid.com/english-resource/50-commongrammar-mistakes-in-english/ http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/errors.html http://www.englishforums.com/content/resources/commo n-spelling-mistakes-in-english.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Lists_of_common_ misspellings

Latin Terms commonly used in Reports

e.g. for example
i.e. that is

ibid - Latin word ibidem, which means in the same place.

et al - stands for et alii which translates as and other people. circa- around: e.g. - c. 3000 B.C. viz - namely

e.g. and i.e USAGE

Lets look at some examples of how to use i.e. and e.g. correctly:
YES The rocky planets (e.g., Mercury) are closest to our sun. NO The rocky planets (i.e., Mercury) are closest to our sun.

Mercury is not equivalent to the rocky planets-theyre not the same thing. Mercury is just one example of a rocky planet, therefore e.g. is appropriate.
YES The rocky planets (i.e., Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) are closest to our sun. YES Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars (i.e., the rocky planets) are closest to our sun. NO The rocky planets (e.g., Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) are closest to our sun.
http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/latin-terms-and-abbreviations/

e.g. and i.e USAGE

In some instances, i.e. and e.g. may both be acceptable, but using one or the other will drastically change the meaning of the sentence. For example: 1. Farmer Brown sells his produce (e.g., apples, oranges, carrots) at the market. 2. Farmer Brown sells his produce (i.e., apples, oranges, carrots) at the market.

??? Spot the difference

http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/latin-terms-and-abbreviations/

Ibid.
The abbreviation ibid. stands for the Latin word ibidem, which means in the same place. It is used in endnotes or footnotes when you cite the same source and page number(s) two or more times. If you cite the same source but a different page number, you can use ibid. followed by a comma and the page number(s). Also, note that ibid. is capitalized when it begins a note.

For example:
1. Barsby, 99-101. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid., 97.

http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/latin-terms-and-abbreviations/

et al.
EXAMPLE: Even the recent Gartner report from star analyst Jane Disbrow et al. shows that 61% of their customers have been audited by at least one software vendor. [Forbes] Et al.is an abbreviation of the Latin loanphrase et alii, meaning and others. It is similar to etc.(short for et cetera, meaning and the rest), but whereas etc. applies to things, et al. applies to people. If you cite one author in body text, it should be AuthorOne. Two authors: AuthorOne and AuthorTwo. Three or more authors: AuthorOne et al. Name of the first author will be given in full and then followed by et al. As with etc., there is no need to include and before et al.
http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/latin-terms-and-abbreviations/

Now you can do