Basic Models of Human Communication

Defining Communication
The words communication and community both derive from the Latin word communis which means public or common. Therefore, a simple definition of communication is a process of producing, transmitting and exchanging information to create public or common knowledge.

Contexts of Communication
Communication can occur in different situations: intrapersonal interpersonal group or organizational

mass context.

Interpersonal context
Interpersonal communication can be best described as direct exchange between individuals who can be designated into roles as source and audience. There are two types of interpersonal communication:
Face-to-Face. This occurs between two persons, or within a group, as long as the communicators are able to see and interact with each other as individuals. Examples of this are teacherstudent consultations, group or community meetings, or discussions, and class lectures. Mediated. This occurs when a device such as a telephone or computer is placed in between the source and audience. Examples of this are telephone conversation, e-mail, online chat, and letter writing.

Interpersonal context
Interpersonal communication is direct exchange between individuals who can be designated into roles as source and audience. Two types of interpersonal communication:
Face to Face Mediated

Group or organizational context

Group and organizational communication happens within and between groups, organizations and institutions, also in face-to-face or mediated situations:
Face-to-Face. Group meetings, discussions, lectures, messages with or without the use of microphones. Mediated. Some forms of media or communications technologies are used to disseminate messages. Depending on who are addressed by the message, mediated group or organizational communication can be internal or external.
Internal. Communication is limited to the members of the group or the organization. This happens when the members are provided with information through standard memos and organizational newsletters. External. Communication is directed to non-members other groups, organizations or general public. For example, media announcements and press releases.

Group or organizational context

Group and organizational communication happens within and between groups, organizations and institutions, also in face-toface or mediated situations:
Face to Face Mediated external

Mediated internal

Mass context
Mass communication is directed to the general public and, therefore, is highly impersonal. It allows large-scale dissemination of messages to audiences who are

dispersed over a wide geographical area.

The most common forms of mass media are
print, i.e., newspapers and magazines, broadcast, i.e., radio and television, film.

Apart from these easily recognizable media, there are other forms of mass media. For example:
music recordings, advertising, and other strategies for product marketing and publicity.

Mass context
The most common forms of mass media are:
Print Broadcast

Film

Other forms of mass media are:

Music recordings Advertising

Publicity and other forms of product promotion

Basic elements of the communication process

Source: the sender or source of a message Message: Idea, thought, emotion, attitude and behavior that is to be communicated Channel: Media used transmit messages from sender to received Receiver: The individual or group of people to whom the message is addressed

Effect/Feedback: Audience response to the message; the changes in thinking, attitude or behavior of receiver that take place as a result of the message

Basic Communication Models

Linear Interactional Transactional

A little vocabulary
Linear Model One Way; no feedback

A little vocabulary
Interactive Model Two-way; adds feedback

A little vocabulary
Transactional Model- Recognizes that the participants in the communication process are both sender and receiver at any given time. It sees communication as dynamic, ongoing, simultaneous not sequential.

Some Linear Models of Communication

Aristotles Model

Speaker

Speech

Audience

Shannon and Weavers general model of communication

Mass medium device

Information Source

Transmitter

Channel

Receiver

Destination

NOISE

David Berlos SMCR Model

The Linear Models in more detail

Aristotle
Speaker

Speech

Audience

In his Rhetoric, Aristotle tells us that we must consider three elements in communication: the speaker the speech the audience

Key points of Aristotles Model

1. Ethos which has been equated with source credibility. Expertise is the most important aspect of credibility. Together with expertise, another important aspect of credibility is trustworthiness. Pathos which is tied to understanding audiences. And thereby, designing messages that are suitable for them. Logos which now pertains to message design and strategy, particularly for persuasive communication.

2.

3.

Key points of the Lasswell Formula

1. Although Lasswells interest was in the mass media, his model is also appropriate for interpersonal communication .

Key points of the Lasswell Formula

2. By identifying the elements of communication in question form, the model specifies the kinds of research needed to conduct to answer his questions . Who: Source or control analysis

Says What: Message or content analysis

In Which Channel: Media analysis To Whom: Audience analysis With What Effect: Consequences on audiences

Shannon and Weavers general model of communication

Mass medium device

Information Source

Transmitter

Channel

Receiver

Destination

NOISE

Key points in the Shannon-Weaver Model

1. Communication consists of six elements, i.e., source, encoder, message, channel, decoder, receiver. 2. Noise is a feature of these six elements. 3. Noise can be physical.

Noise as source of entropy

Can be physical: a loud motorbike roaring down the road while you're trying to hold a conversation your little brother standing in front of the TV set mist on the inside of the car windscreen smudges on a printed page 'snow' on a TV set

Key points in the Shannon-Weaver Model

1. Communication consists of six elements, i.e., source, encoder, message, channel, decoder, receiver. 2. Noise is a feature of these six elements.
3. Noise can be physical or it can be semantic.

Semantic noise includes:

Distraction Differences in the use of the code Emphasizing the wrong part of the message Attitude towards the sender

Attitude towards the message

You are physically very attracted to the person who is talking to you.
As a result, your attention is directed to his/her beautiful eyes or smooth skin rather than what they are saying. There is no physical noise which prevents the message from reaching you. You hear it, but you don't decode it.

Semantic noise includes:

Distraction Differences in the use of the language code Emphasizing the wrong part of the message Attitude towards the sender Attitude towards the message

Differences in the use of the code

This French gesture means I dont believe you."

Differences in the use of the code

This Iranian gesture is extremely obscene, and means roughly "screw you."

Differences in the use of the code

This Japanese gesture means "angry."

Differences in the use of the code

The person beside you is talking in Cebuano about how s/he was robbed in the jeep. You don't understand. There is nothing which physically prevents the elements of the message from reaching you, you simply can't understand it.

Semantic noise includes: Distraction Differences in the use of the language code Emphasizing the wrong part of the message Attitude towards the sender Attitude towards the message

Emphasizing the wrong part of the message

An advertising campaign which has been so successful with some new style or gimmick that everyone is talking about it. However, no one has actually noticed what product is being advertised.

Semantic noise includes: Distraction Differences in the use of the language code Emphasizing the wrong part of the message Attitude towards the sender Attitude towards the message

Attitude towards the sender

You're talking to someone a lot older than you. On the basis of their age, you make a lot of assumptions about the kind of code appropriate to them - and the conversation goes wrong because they were the wrong assumptions.

Semantic noise includes: Distraction Differences in the use of the language code Emphasizing the wrong part of the message Attitude towards the sender Attitude towards the message

Attitude towards the message

You may have a very positive attitude to your co-worker but you still dont agree to attend the Life in the Spirit Seminar s/he is inviting you. S/he is religious and you arent. While you may respect her/his right to believe in things that you consider unimportant, you do not have much respect for her/his religious beliefs.

David Berlos SMCR Model

Key ideas in Berlos model

1. There are five verbal communication skills: Two are encoding Two are decoding skills: skills:
Speaking Writing Listening Reading

The fifth is crucial to both encoding and decoding :

Thinking or reasoning

Key ideas in Berlos model

2. Source and receiver characteristics affect whether the message is received as it was intended.
For example:
The source may: have a clear and authoritative tone of voice, be considered by the receiver as one of them, be regarded an expert on the topic, as well as have great enthusiasm for the subject. The receiver may: be highly intelligent and literate, taking time to read a variety materials, own media equipment at home, as well as watch movies, have access to the internet, and be able to express opinions articulately .

But, if the receiver finds the sources message irrelevant, pointless, and boring, s/he will not be motivated to pay attention to and decode the message.

Key ideas in Berlos model

3. The social system/culture serves as the context within which the source and receiver create and interpret messages .
More specifically:
People learn and understand through social interaction at particular times and places. They communicate during various social encounters to interpret the information they receive and to share their interpretations with others. Where sources and receivers belong to the same social system and culture, there will be similar definitions of and values. However, individual differences such as different levels of knowledge, past behaviors and habits will result in different meanings.

However, just because source and receiver belong to the same cultural group and speak the same language is no guarantee that the messages they create will be automatically understood by the other.

Some Interactive Models of Communication

Osgood and Schramms Circular Model

Message

Encoder Interpreter Decoder

Decoder Interpreter Encoder

Message

The Interactive Models in more detail

Osgood and Schramms Circular Model

Message

Encoder Interpreter Decoder

Decoder Interpreter Encoder

Message

Key points of the Circular Model

1. The model rejects the notion that communication is linear, rather it emphasizes the interaction between sender and receiver. 2. The model rejects the roles of sender and receiver are clearly distinguished, pointing out that participants in the communication process swap between the roles of source/encoder and receiver/decoder. 3. A persons cognitive abilities and personal experiences provide the framework for interpreting the verbal and nonverbal symbols used in the message.

Some Transactional Models of Communication

Dances helical model of communication

Key points of the Dance Model

1. What is communicated now will influence the structure and content of communication later on.
Since communication moves forward, the helix provides a better understanding of the communication process The circular model suggests that communication comes back to exactly the same point from which it started, which is manifestly erroneous.

Key points of the Dance Model

2. Time is an important element in the communication process, i.e., each act can be said to be built on the others that come before it.

Maletzkes Model of the Mass Communication Process