Product specification Dimensioning and tolerancing

It is impossible to make a perfect component so when we design a part we specify the acceptable range of features that make-up the part.

Chapter 2 Suppliment DIMENSIONS, TOLERANCES, AND SURFACES

Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related Attributes Surfaces ASME Y14.5 Form Geometry Effect of Manufacturing Processes

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes

THE DESIGN PROCESS Product Engineering

Design Process
Off-road bicycle that ... 1. Conceptualization 2. Synthesis 3. Analysis 4. Evaluation 5. Representation 1. Clarification of the task 2. Conceptual design 3. Embodiment design 4. Detailed design Functional requirement -> Design Steps 1 & 2 Select material and properties, begin geometric modeling (needs creativity, sketch is sufficient) 3 mathematical, engineering analysis 4 simulation, cost, physical model 5 formal drawing or modeling

Design Process
How can this be accomplished?

DESIGN REPRESENTATION
Design Engineering Representation Manufacturing

Verbal Sketch Multi-view orthographic drawing (drafting) CAD drafting CAD 3D & surface model Solid model Feature based design Requirement of the representation method precisely convey the design concept easy to use

A FREE-HAND SKETCH
Orthographic Projection

A FORMAL 3-VIEW DRAWING

0.9444"

4 holes 1/4" dia around 2" dia , first hole at 45

2.000 0.001

DESIGN DRAFTING
Y
top

f g

P rof ile plane

e

Horizont al I I
h j i

I IV

side

III

Front al plane
front

Drafting in the third angle

Third angle projection

INTERPRETING A DRAWING

DESIGN DRAFTING

Partial view

2.0 000.001

A-A
A

Cut off view and auxiliary view Provide more local details

DIMENSIONING
Requirements

1. Unambiguous
2. Completeness 3. No redundancy
0.83 ' 0.98 ' 3.03 ' 1.22 '

Incomplete dimensioning

1.72 '

Redundant dimensioning

0.86 '

0.83 ' 3.03 '

1.22 '

Adequate dimensioning

TOLERANCE
Dimensional tolerance - conventional

Geometric tolerance - modern

nominal dimension 1.00 + - 0.05 tolerance means a range 0.95 - 1.05

unilateral bilateral

0.95

+ 0.10 - 0.00

1.05

+ 0.00 - 0.10

1.00 + - 0.05

TOLERANCE STACKING
1. Check that the tolerance & dimension specifications are reasonable - for assembly. 2. Check there is no over or under specification.
"TOLERANCE IS ALWAYS ADDITIVE" why?

0.80 ' 0.01 1.00 ' 0.01

1.20 ' 0.01

What is the expected dimension and tolerances?

d = 0.80 +1.00 + 1.20 = 3.00 t = (0.01 + 0.01 + 0.01) = 0.03

TOLERANCE STACKING (ii)

0.80 ' 0.01

?
3.00 ' 0.01

1.20 ' 0.01

What is the expected dimension and tolerances? d = 3.00 - 0.80 - 1.20 = 1.00 t = (0.01 + 0.01 + 0.01) = 0.03

TOLERANCE STACKING (iii)

x
0.80 ' 0.01

?
3.00 ' 0.01

1.20 ' 0.01

Maximum x length = 3.01 - 0.79 - 1.19 = 1.03 Minimum x length = 2.99 - 0.81 - 1.21 = 0.97

Therefore x = 1.00 0.03

TOLERANCE GRAPH
A d,t B d,t C d,t d,t G(N,d,t) N: a set of reference lines, sequenced nodes d: a set of dimensions, arcs D E

t: a set of tolerances, arcs

d : dimension between references i & j : tolerance between references i & j Reference i is in front of reference j in the sequence.

ij

t ij

EXAMPLE TOLERANCE GRAPH

d,t

d,t

d,t d,t

d DE = d DA + d AE = d AD + d AE = (d AB + d BC + d CD) + d AE t DE = t AB + t BC + tCD + t AE

different properties between d & t

OVER SPECIFICATION
If one or more cycles can be detected in the graph, we say that the dimension and tolerance are over specified. d1 d2 d3 Redundant dimension
C

A d1,t1 d2,t2 d3,t3

A B

t1

B t3

t2

Over constraining tolerance (impossible to satisfy) why?

UNDER SPECIFICATION
When one or more nodes are disconnected from the graph, the dimension or tolerance is under specified.

d1

d2 d3

E C D

is disconnected from the rest of the graph.

No way to find
dBC and dDE

PROPERLY TOLERANCED

d,t

d,t

d,t d,t

d DE = d DA + d AE = d AD + d AE = (d AB + d BC + d CD) + d AE t DE = t AB + t BC + tCD + t AE

TOLERANCE ANALYSIS
For two or three dimensional tolerance analysis: i. Only dimensional tolerance Do one dimension at a time. Decompose into X,Y,Z, three one dimensional problems. ii. with geometric tolerance ? Don't have a good solution yet. Use simulation?

diamet er & t olerance A circular tolerance zone, the size is influenced by the diameter of the hole. The shape of the hole is also defined by a geometric tolerance.

t rue posit ion

3-D GEOMETRIC TOLERANCE PROBLEMS

datum surface datum surface t

Reference frame

perpendicularity

TOLERANCE ASSIGNMENT
Tolerance is money

Specify as large a tolerance as possible as long as functional and assembly requirements can be satisfied.
(ref. Tuguchi, ElSayed, Hsiang, Quality Engineering in Production Systems, McGraw Hill, 1989.)
Qu a l i t y Co s t

function cost

+t -t d ( n o m i n a l d im e n s io n )

Tolerance value

Quality cost

REASON OF HAVING TOLERANCE

No manufacturing process is perfect. Nominal dimension (the "d" value) can not be achieved exactly. Without tolerance we lose the control and as a consequence cause functional or assembly failure.

EFFECTS OF TOLERANCE (I)

1. Functional constraints e.g. flow rate

dt Diameter of the tube affects the flow. What is the allowed flow rate variation (tolerance)?

EFFECTS OF TOLERANCE (II)

2. Assembly constraints e.g. peg-in-a-hole dp dh How to maintain the clearance?

Compound fitting The dimension of each segment affects others.

RELATION BETWEEN PRODUCT & PROCESS TOLERANCES

A 0.01 tolerances Design specifications S et up locat ors
0 .0 0 5

Machine uses the locators as the reference. The distances from the machine coordinate system to the locators are known. The machining tolerance is measured from the locators. In order to achieve the 0.01 tolerances, the process tolerance must be 0.005 or better. When multiple setups are used, the setup error need to be taken into consideration.

0 .0 0 5 0 .0 0 5

Process tolerance

TOLERANCE CHARTING
A method to allocate process tolerance and verify that the process sequence and machine selection can satisfy the design tolerance.
st ock boundary
0 .0 1 0 .0 1 0 .0 1

Dim

t ol 0 .0 1 0 .0 1 0 .0 1

blue print

1 .0 1 .0 3 .0

Not shown are process tolerance assignment and balance

10 12 20

Op code

Operation sequence

10 10 20 20

lat he lat he lat he lat he

produced tolerances: process tol of 10 + process tol of 12 process tol of 20 + process tol 22 process tol of 22 + setup tol

22

PROBLEMS WITH DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCE ALONE As designed:

1 .0 0 0 .0 0 1 6 .0 0 0 . 0 0 1

As manufactured:
1 .0 0 1

Will you accept the part at right? Problem is the control of straightness. How to eliminate the ambiguity?

1 .0 0 1

1 .0 0 1

6 .0 0

GEOMETRIC TOLERANCES
ANSI Y14.5M-1977 GD&T (ISO 1101, geometric tolerancing; ISO 5458 positional tolerancing; ISO 5459 datums; and others), ASME Y14.5 - 1994 FORM straightness flatness Circularity cylindricity
roundness

ORIENTATION perpendicularity Squareness angularity parallelism LOCATION

RUNOUT circular runout total runout PROFILE profile profile of a line

concentricity true position symmetry

Datum: a reference plane, point, line, axis where usually a plane where you can base your measurement. Symbol: A

DATUM & FEATURE CONTROL FRAME

Even a hole pattern can be used as datum. Feature: specific component portions of a part and may include one or more surfaces such as holes, faces, screw threads, profiles, or slots. Feature Control Frame: datum // 0.005 M A modifier symbol tolerance value

MODIFIERS
M Maximum material condition Regardless of feature size L Least material condition MMC RFS LMC assembly (implied unless specified) less frequently used maintain critical wall thickness or critical location of features.

P Projected tolerance zone

O Diametrical tolerance zone T F Tangent plane Free state

MMC, RFS, LMC MMC, RFS RFS

SOME TERMS
MMC : Maximum Material Condition Smallest hole or largest peg (more material left on the part)

LMC :

Least Material Condition Largest hole or smallest peg (less material left on the part)

Virtual condition:

Collective effect of all tolerances specified on a feature.

Datum target points: Specify on the drawing exactly where the datum contact points should be located. Three for primary datum, two for secondary datum and one or tertiary datum.

DATUM REFERENCE FRAME

Pr i m a r y

Three perfect planes used to locate the imperfect part. a. Three point contact on the primary plane b. two point contact on the secondary plane c. one point contact on the tertiary plane primary Secondary Tertiary

T e r t i a r y Se c o n d a r y

O 0.001 M A B C B

STRAIGHTNESS
Tolerance zone between two straightness lines. 0.001 Value must be smaller than the size tolerance.

1.000 0.002 ' M easured error 0.001

0.001 0.001 1.000 0.002 ' Design Meaning

Dimensions and Tolerances

In addition to mechanical and physical properties, other factors that determine the performance of a manufactured product include:
Dimensions - linear or angular sizes of a component specified on the part drawing Tolerances- allowable variations from the specified part dimensions that are permitted in manufacturing
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes

Surfaces
Nominal surface - intended surface contour of part, defined by lines in the engineering drawing
The nominal surfaces appear as absolutely straight lines, ideal circles, round holes, and other edges and surfaces that are geometrically perfect

Actual surfaces of a part are determined by the manufacturing processes used to make it
The variety of manufacturing processes result in wide variations in surface characteristics
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes

Why Surfaces are Important

Aesthetic reasons Surfaces affect safety Friction and wear depend on surface characteristics Surfaces affect mechanical and physical properties Assembly of parts is affected by their surfaces Smooth surfaces make better electrical contacts
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes

Surface Technology
Concerned with:
Defining the characteristics of a surface Surface texture Surface integrity Relationship between manufacturing processes and characteristics of resulting surface

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes

Figure 5.2 - A magnified cross-section of a typical metallic part surface

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Surface Texture
The topography and geometric features of the surface When highly magnified, the surface is anything but straight and smooth. It has roughness, waviness, and flaws It also possesses a pattern and/or direction resulting from the mechanical process that produced it
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes

Surface Integrity
Concerned with the definition, specification, and control of the surface layers of a material (most commonly metals) in manufacturing and subsequent performance in service Manufacturing processes involve energy which alters the part surface The altered layer may result from work hardening (mechanical energy), or heating (thermal energy), chemical treatment, or even electrical energy Surface integrity includes surface texture as well as the altered layer beneath
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes

Surface Texture Repetitive and/or random deviations from the nominal surface of an object

Figure 5.3 - Surface texture features

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes

Four Elements of Surface Texture

1. Roughness - small, finely-spaced deviations from nominal surface determined by material characteristics and process that formed the surface 2. Waviness - deviations of much larger spacing; they occur due to work deflection, vibration, heat treatment, and similar factors
Roughness is superimposed on waviness
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes

3. Lay predominant direction or pattern of the surface texture

Figure 5.4 - Possible lays of a surface

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4. Flaws - irregularities that occur occasionally on the surface

Includes cracks, scratches, inclusions, and similar defects in the surface Although some flaws relate to surface texture, they also affect surface integrity

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Surface Roughness and Surface Finish

Surface roughness - a measurable characteristic based on roughness deviations Surface finish - a more subjective term denoting smoothness and general quality of a surface In popular usage, surface finish is often used as a synonym for surface roughness Both terms are within the scope of surface texture
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes

Surface Roughness Average of vertical deviations from nominal surface over a specified surface length

Figure 5.5 - Deviations from nominal surface used in the two definitions of surface roughness
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Surface Roughness Equation

Arithmetic average (AA) is generally used, based on absolute values of deviations, and is referred to as average roughness
Ra
Lm

where Ra = average roughness; y = vertical deviation from nominal surface (absolute value); and Lm = specified distance over which the surface deviations are measured
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes

y dx Lm

An Alternative Surface Roughness Equation

Approximation of previous equation is perhaps easier to comprehend:
yi Ra i 1 n
n

where Ra has the same meaning as above; yi = vertical deviations (absolute value) identified by subscript i; and n = number of deviations included in Lm
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes

Cutoff Length
A problem with the Ra computation is that waviness may get included To deal with this problem, a parameter called the cutoff length is used as a filter to separate waviness from roughness deviations Cutoff length is a sampling distance along the surface. A sampling distance shorter than the waviness width eliminates waviness deviations and only includes roughness deviations
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes

Figure 5.6 - Surface texture symbols in engineering drawings: (a) the symbol, and (b) symbol with identification labels Values of Ra are given in microinches; units for other measures are given in inches Designers do not always specify all of the parameters on engineering drawings

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes

TRUE POSITION
Dimensional tolerance 1.00 0.01 1.20 0.01 O.80 0.02 O0.01 M A B True position tolerance 1.00 B A 1.20 Hole center tolerance zone Tolerance zone 0.022

Tolerance zone 0.01dia

HOLE TOLERANCE ZONE

Tolerance zone for dimensional toleranced hole is not a circle. This causes some assembly problems.

For a hole using true position tolerance the tolerance zone is a circular zone.

TOLERANCE VALUE MODIFICATION

O1.00 0.02 O0.01 M A B

Produced 1.00
B A

hole size
0.97 1.20 MMC 0.98 0.99

True Pos tol M L out of diametric tolerance 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.04

S 0.01 0.01

1.00
The default modifier for true position is MMC. 1.01 LMC 1.02 1.03

0.03
0.04 0.05

0.03
0.02 0.01

0.01
0.01 0.01

out of diametric tolerance

For M the allowable tolerance = specified tolerance + (produced hole size - MMC hole size)

MMC HOLE
LMC hole MMC hole hole axis t olerance zone

MMC peg will f it in t he hole , axis must be in t he t olerance zone

Given the same peg (MMC peg), when the produced hole size is greater than the MMC hole, the hole axis true position tolerance zone can be enlarged by the amount of difference between the produced hole size and the MMC hole size.

PROJECTED TOLERANCE ZONE

Applied for threaded holes or press fit holes to ensure interchangeability between parts. The height of the projected tolerance zone is the thickness of the mating part.

.375 - 16 U N C- 2B O.010 M A B C .250 p

0.01 0.25 Project ed zone t olerance

Produced part

Surface Integrity
Surface texture alone does not completely describe a surface There may be metallurgical changes in the altered layer beneath the surface that can have a significant effect on a material's mechanical properties Surface integrity is the study and control of this subsurface layer and the changes in it that occur during processing which may influence the performance of the finished part or product
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes

Surface Changes Caused by Processing

Surface changes are caused by the application of various forms of energy during processing
Example: Mechanical energy is the most common form in manufacturing. Processes include metal forming (e.g., forging, extrusion), pressworking, and machining Although primary function is to change geometry of workpart, mechanical energy can also cause residual stresses, work hardening, and cracks in the surface layers
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes

Surface Changes Caused by Mechanical Energy

Residual stresses in subsurface layer Cracks - microscopic and macroscopic Laps, folds, or seams Voids or inclusions introduced mechanically Hardness variations (e.g., work hardening)

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Surface Changes Caused by Thermal Energy

Metallurgical changes (recrystallization, grain size changes, phase changes at surface) Redeposited or resolidified material (e.g., welding or casting) Heat-affected zone in welding (includes some of the metallurgical changes listed above) Hardness changes

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Surface Changes Caused by Chemical Energy

Intergranular attack Chemical contamination Absorption of certain elements such as H and Cl in metal surface Corrosion, pitting, and etching Dissolving of microconstituents Alloy depletion and resulting hardness changes
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Surface Changes Caused by Electrical Energy

Changes in conductivity and/or magnetism Craters resulting from short circuits during certain electrical processing techniques

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes

Tolerances and Manufacturing Processes

Some manufacturing processes are inherently more accurate than others Examples:
Most machining processes are quite accurate, capable of tolerances = 0.05 mm ( 0.002 in.) or better Sand castings are generally inaccurate, and tolerances of 10 to 20 times those used for machined parts must be specified
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes

Surfaces and Manufacturing Processes

Some processes are inherently capable of producing better surfaces than others
In general, processing cost increases with improvement in surface finish because additional operations and more time are usually required to obtain increasingly better surfaces Processes noted for providing superior finishes include honing, lapping, polishing, and superfinishing
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I - Processes