TOPIC : MEMORY

MEMORY

Memory is the ability of the brain to store, retain and subsequently recall information.

Types of the Memory

1. PRIMARY MEMORY (Main or Internal Memory)
a) b) c) d) e) RAM(Random access memory) ROM(Read only Memory) Virtual Memory Cache Memory Hybrid Memory

2. SECONDARY MEMORY

1. PRIMARY MEMORY

Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the CPU via a memory bus. Read and written to easily in RAM. Main memory will loss the data when the device is powered down, so it is also called a Volatile memory. It is direct access as it can be both written to or read from in any order.

A) RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY)

Its purpose is to temporarily hold programs and data for processing. In modern computers it also holds the operating system. Since RAM can be accessed at very high speeds. All data in RAM is lost when the computer is switched off so it is volatile memory. RAM is considered "random access" because you can access any memory cell directly. Types of the RAM: SRAM(Static RAM), DRAM (Dynamic RAM), PSRAM(Pseudo RAM) & NVRAM (Nonvolatile RAM). SRAM retains its contents as long as electrical power is applied to the chip. If the power is turned off or lost temporarily, its contents will be lost forever. Doesnt need refreshing. Also for date and time settings as powered by small battery. Access time around 10 nanoseconds. Memory cell uses flip-flop to store bit.
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DRAM controller is used to refresh the data before it expires, the contents of memory can be kept alive for as long as they are needed. So DRAM is as useful as SRAM after all. This is true even when power is applied constantly. DRAM Access time 60 70 nanoseconds. Memory cell uses MOS transistor and capacitor to store bit. More compact than SRAM. Slower to access than SRAM. Typical refresh rate 15.625 micro sec. PSRAM is a DRAM with built-in memory refresh controller. PSRAM is a Popular low-cost high-density alternative to SRAM. NVRAM which holds the data after external power removed. It is battery backed RAM. SRAM with own permanently connected battery. Writes as fast as reads. the best-known form of NVRAM memory today is flash memory
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B) ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY)

It is a Non-volatile memory. holds bits after power is no longer supplied. ROM holds programs and data permanently even when computer is switched off. It Can be read from but not written to, by a processor in an embedded system. The contents of ROM are fixed at the time of manufacture. It uses to Store software program for general-purpose processor. Also user to Store constant data needed by system. Access time of between 10 and 50 nanoseconds. Types of the ROM: Mask Programmed ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM.
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MASK PROGRAMMED READ ONLY MEMORY

These types of the ROM is programmed at the time of the fabrication. These ROM has a lowest write ability (only once), but the highest storage permanence. Stored bits are never changed unless damaged. Typically used for final design of high-volume systems. Erasing is not possible in these type of ROM.

PROM (PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY)

It is some time also called a OTP (one time programmable ROM). Empty of data when manufactured, that means programmed by the user. It has a very low write ability that means typically written only once and requires ROM programmer device. Commonly used in final products, cheaper, harder to inadvertently modify. Very high storage permanence, bits dont change unless reconnected to programmer. Erasing is not possible in these type of ROM.
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EPROM (ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY)

It Can be programmed, erased and reprogrammed. Better write ability, it can be erased and reprogrammed thousands of times. The EPROM chip has a small window on top allowing it to be erased by shining ultra-violet light on it. After reprogramming the window is covered to prevent new contents being erased. Access time is around 45 90 nanoseconds. Reduced storage permanence, program lasts about 10 years . It is more expensive than PROMs, their ability to be reprogrammed makes EPROMs an essential part of the software development and testing process.
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EEPROM (ELECTRICALLY ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY)

It can be Programmed and erased individual words electronically rather than UV Rays in EPROM. Once written, the new data will remain in the device foreveror at least until it is electrically erased. Better write ability, it can writes very slow due to erasing and programming. Similar storage permanence to EPROM (about 10 years) . Far more convenient than EPROMs, but more expensive. Access times between 45 and 200 nanoseconds.

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FLASH MEMORY

It is the Extension of EEPROM, Same write ability and storage permanence. Fast erase, Large blocks of memory erased at once, rather than one word at a time, Blocks typically several thousand bytes large. Flash memory devices are high density, low cost, nonvolatile, fast (to read, but not to write), and electrically reprogrammable. It can be reprogrammed while still in the computer. Easier to upgrade programs stored in Flash ROM. Used to store programs in devices e.g. modems, digital cameras, cell phones. Access time is around 45 90 nanoseconds. Flash memory is noiseless. It is smaller in size & lighter weight. Example of the flash memory is computer's BIOS chip, Compact Flash, Smart Media , Memory Stick , Memory cards for video game consoles.

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C) VIRTUAL MEMORY

Computer operating systems generally use virtual memory techniques for ordinary applications, such as word processors, spreadsheets,multimedia,players accounting, etc., except where the required hardware support (memory management unit) is unavailable or insufficient. Swaps programs and data between the hard-disk and RAM as the CPU requires them for processing. A cheap method of running large or many programs on a computer system. Cost is speed: the CPU can access RAM in nanoseconds but hard-disk in milliseconds (Note: a millisecond is a thousandth of a second) Virtual memory is much slower than RAM.
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D) CACHE MEMORY

A CPU cache is a cache used by the central processing unit of a computer to reduce the average time to access memory, Faster for CPU to access than main memory. The cache is a smaller, faster memory which stores copies of the data from the most frequently used main memory locations. Small amount of memory typically 256 or 512 kilobytes. It is faster but more expensive than DRAM.

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When the processor needs to read from or write to a location in main memory, it first checks whether a copy of that data is in the cache. If so, the processor immediately reads from or writes to the cache, which is much faster than reading from or writing to main memory .So First, check cache for copy.

cache hit

copy is in cache, quick access

cache miss copy not in cache, read address and possibly its neighbours into cache

Usually on same chip as processor, space limited, so much smaller than off-chip main memory & also faster access.

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E) HYBRIED MEMORY

Several types of memory combine features of both RAM & ROM. These devices do not belong to either group and can be collectively referred to as hybrid memory devices. Hybrid memories can be read and written as desired, like RAM, but maintain their contents without electrical power, just like ROM. These are typically used to store code.

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2. SECONDARY MEMORY

The computer usually uses its input/output channels to access secondary storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in primary storage. Secondary storage does not lose the data when the device is powered down. - it is non-volatile. Per unit, it is typically also an order of magnitude less expensive than primary storage. The secondary storage is often formatted according to a file system format, example: FAT & NTFS. Hard disk are usually used as secondary storage.

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