Introduction to Work Measurement

This discusses the work measurement techniques and the uses of each technique. The techniques will help the analysts establish standard times.

Work Measurement
Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry out a task at a defined rate of working (ILO, 1992). The result of the work measurement is standard time.

Purposes of Work Measurement (1/2)

Work Measurement can be used in investigating, reducing, and subsequently eliminating ineffective time, that is the time during which no effective work is being performed, whatever the cause. Work measurement can provide management with a means of measuring the time taken in the performance of an operation or series of operations in such a way that ineffective time is shown up and can be separated from effective time.

Purposes of Work Measurement (2/2)

Work measurement can be used to set standard times for carrying out the work, so that, if any ineffective time does creep in later, it will immediately be shown up as an excess over the standard time and will thus be brought to the attention of the management. Work measurement reveals the management itself and the behavior of the workers.

Work Measurement
THE USE OF WORK MEASUREMENT:

In the process of setting standards it may be necessary to use work measurement (1/3):

To compare the efficiency of alternative methods. Other conditions being equal, the method which takes the least time will be the best method. To balance the work of members of teams, in association with multiple activity charts, so that, as nearly as possible, each member has a task taking an equal time to perform. To determine, in association with worker and machine multiple activity charts, the number of machines an operative can run. The time standards, once set, may be used.

Work Measurement
THE USE OF WORK MEASUREMENT:

In the process of setting standards it may be necessary to use work measurement (2/3):

To provide the basis for production planning and control for the choice of a better layout and for the process planning, and for establishing just-in-time inventory control systems. To provide information that can enable estimates to be made for tenders, selling prices and delivery dates.

Work Measurement
THE USE OF WORK MEASUREMENT:

In the process of setting standards it may be necessary to use work measurement (3/3):

To set standards of machine utilization and labor performance which can be used for any of the above purposes and as a basis for incentive schemes. To provide information for labor-cost control and to enable standard costs to be fixed and maintained.

Work Measurement
The following ways can be used to measure and establish standard times.

Time Study Work Sampling Standard Data The Fractioned Professional Estimate Predetermined Standard Times

TIME STUDY

Time study is the most versatile and most widely used technique for measuring work in industry.

TIME STUDY is used to determine the time required by a qualified and well-trained person working at a normal pace to do a specified task.

It is used to measure work.

Uses of Time Study

- It originally had its greatest application in connection with wage incentives; Used for purposes including: 1. Determining schedules and planning work. 2. Determining standard costs as an aid in preparing budgets. 3. Estimating the cost of a product before manufacturing it; Such information is of value in preparing bids and in determining selling price.

Uses of Time Study

- It originally had its greatest application in connection with wage incentives; Used for purposes including: 4. Determining machine effectiveness, the number of machines which one person can operate, and as an aid in balancing assembly lines and work done in conveyor. 5. Determining time standards to be used as basis for the payment of a wage incentive to direct labor and indirect labor. 6. Determining time standards to be used as a basis for labor cost control.

Time Study Equipment

The equipment needed for time study consists of a timing device and an observation board.

Decimal Stop Watches and Electronic Timers

The stopwatch and the electronic timer are the most widely used timing devices for a time study.

Decimal Minute Watch

-It has 100 divisions on its face, and each division is equal to 0.01 minute, that is a complete sweep of the long hand requires one minute. The small dial on the watch face has 30 divisions, each of which is equal to one minute. Therefore, for every full revolution of the sweep hand, the small hand moves one division, or one minute.

Electronic Stopwatch - It provide resolution to 0.001 second and an accuracy of 0.002 percent. They weigh about 4 ounces and are about 4x2x1 inches in size. They permit timing any number of individual elements, while also counting the total elapsed time.

Time Study Equipment

Video Cameras
It is ideal for recording operators methods and elapsed time. The analysts can record exact details of the method used and can then assign normal time values, anyway recorded films can be reviewed at the analysts convenience.
Standards can be established by projecting the film at the same speed that the pictures were taken and then performance rating the operator. Because of all the facts are there, observing the videotape is a fair and accurate way to rate performance.

Time Study Equipment

Observation board
A lightweight board, slightly larger than the observation sheet, is used to hold the paper and the stopwatch.

Time study requires direct observation, thus the time study board should be brought by the observer to the operation conveniently.
It should be light, easy to handle so as not to harm the hand, but strong to provide a suitable backing for the time study form. The board should be slightly larger than the study forms but must have a shape that allow the observer for comfortable fit and ease of writing while it is being held.

Time Study Equipment

Observation Sheet
A printed form with spaces provided for recording information about the operator being studied. This information usually includes a detailed description of the operation, the name of the operator, the name of observer, the time, date, and place of study, also the working condition. The form also provide spaces for recording stop-watch readings for each element of the operation, performance ratings of the operator, and computations. Space may be provided for a sketch of the workplace, a drawing of the part, and specifications of the materials, jigs, gauges, and tools.

Request for a Time Study

It is not made unless an authorized person requests it. (Usually it is the supervisor who requests that a study be made, but the plant manager, chief engineer, production control supervisor, cost accountant, or other member of the organization may make such request.)

If a time standard is to be established on a new job for the wage incentive purposes, it is to be made certain that the operation is running satisfactorily before requesting the study. The supervisor should also see that the operators have thoroughly learned the job and that they are following the prescribed method.

Is the Job ready for Time Study?

The time standard established for a job will not be correct if the method for doing the job has changed, if the materials do not meet the specifications, if the machine speed has changed, or if other conditions of work are different from those that were present when the time study was originally made.

Is the Job ready for Time Study?

The time study analyst should ask the following questions: Can the speed or feed of the machine be increased without affecting optimum tool life or without affecting the quality of the product? Can changes in the tooling be made to reduce the cycle time? Can materials be moved closer to the work area to reduce handling time? Is the equipment operating correctly, and is a quality product being produced? Is the operation being performed safely?

Making the Time Study

Steps in Conducting a Time Study:
1.

Select the job to be studied. Obtain and record all the information available about the job, the operator, and the working conditions.

2.

3.

Record the complete description of the method, breaking down the operation into elements.
Examine the detailed breakdown to ensure that the most effective method and motions are being used, and determine the number of observations (sample size) for every element.

4.

Making the Time Study

Steps in Conducting a Time Study:
5.

Measure and record the time taken by the operator to perform each element for the operation. Rate the operators speed relative to the observers concept of standard performance. Extend the observed times to basic times. Determine the allowances to be made over and above the basic time for the operation. Determine the standard time for the operation.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Making the Time Study

The analyst should check the method used by the operative before proceeding to the study. If the intention of the analyst in conducting a time study is to establish time standards, an investigation on the productivity of the method used should be done first. This is to ensure that the standard time conforms to standard performance.

Making the Time Study

Work Cycle - sequence of elements which are required to perform a job or yield a unit of production. The sequence may sometimes include occasional elements (ILO, 1992). Element - a distinct part of a specified job selected for convenience of observation, measurement and analysis.

Making the Time Study

Recording Information
All information requested in the heading of the observation sheet should be carefully and clearly recorded. - time studies hastily and incompletely made are of little value.

Necessary information concerning operation, part, material, customer, order number, lot size, etc. can be obtained from the route sheet, BOM, or the drawing of the part. A sketch of the workplace should also be included showing the working position of the operator and the location of tools, fixtures, and materials. Accurate record should be made.

Making the Time Study

Dividing the operation into Elements and recording description of the method
If a previous record or manual on a certain procedure is not available, the time study analyst must observe carefully the operations and the motions that are being performed by the worker in accomplishing a job. He then must record all this information to carefully break down the operation into measurable elements.

Making the Time Study

Reasons for Element Breakdown (1/2):
1.

One of the best ways to describe an operation is to break it down into definite and measurable elements and describe each of these separately. Elements that occur regularly are listed first, and then all other elements that are a necessary part of the job is described.*
Standard time values may be determined for the elements of the job. Such element time standards or standard data make it possible to determine the total standard time for an operation.

2.

Making the Time Study

Reasons for Element Breakdown (2/2):
3.

A time study may show that excessive time is being taken to perform certain elements of the job or that too little time is being spent on other elements. An operator may not work at the same tempo throughout the cycle. A time study permits separate performance ratings to be applied on each element of the job.

4.

Making the Time Study

Types of Elements
Eight types of elements are distinguished to aid the analyst in breaking down the job:
1.Repetitive

2.Occasional
3.Constant 4.Variable 5.Manual

6.Machine
7.Governing 8.Foreign

Making the Time Study

Types of Elements (1/3):

Repetitive element - is an element which occurs in every work cycle of an operation. Occasional element - is an element which does not occur in every work cycle of an operation but which may occur at a regular or irregular interval/s. Constant element - is an element for which the basic time remains constant whenever it is performed.

Constant elements may be repetitive or occasional, similarly, repetitive elements may be variable or constant.

Making the Time Study

Types of Elements (2/3):

Variable element - is an element for which the basic time varies in relation to some characteristics of the product, equipment or process, e.g. dimensions, weight, quality, etc. Manual element - is an element performed by the worker.

Machine element - is an element performed automatically by any process, physical, chemical, otherwise that, once started, cannot be influenced by a worker except to terminate it prematurely.

Making the Time Study

Types of Elements (3/3):

Governing element - is an element occupying a longer time within a work cycle than that of any other element which is being performed concurrently.

Foreign element - is an element observed which does not form a part of the operation(s) being studied.

Making the Time Study

Rules in Breaking down operation into elements:

Elements should be easily identifiable, with definite beginnings and endings, so that, once established, they can be repeatedly recognized. Elements should be as short as can be conveniently timed by a trained observer. As far as possible, element, particularly the manual ones, should be chosen so that they represent naturally unified and recognizably distinct segments of the operation.

Making the Time Study

Rules in Breaking down operation into elements:

Manual elements should be separated from machine elements. Constant elements should be separated from variable elements. Elements which do not occur in every cycle should be timed separately from those that do. The length of each element may depend on the type of operation. The tools and equipment to be used would vary on the type of operation.

Making the Time Study

Taking and Recording the Data

Continuous Timing (Split timing) - the watch is started at the beginning of the study and permits it to run until the end of the study. Repetitive Timing (Lap Timing) - the hands of the watch are snapped back to zero at the end of each element. Accumulative Timing - permits the direct reading of the time for each element by using two stopwatches.

Making the Time Study

Recording the stopwatch readings
It may be difficult for the observer to do several things in a quick succession, namely: observe the operator, read the watch, and record the data on the observation sheet; but it is possible after some practice.
The general policy of carefully timing every part of the operation should be a requirement.

Making the Time Study

Recording the stopwatch readings
Elements such as: change tools, blow chips out of jig, move finished parts, lubricate die should be considered and timed. Foreign elements may or may not be included in the time standard.

Making the Time Study

Number of Cycles to be Timed
The time required to perform the elements of an operation may be expected to vary slightly from cycle to cycle. Variations in time may result from things such as difference in the exact position of the parts and tools used by the operator; or from possible differences in the end point of a watch reading.
Time study is a sampling process; the greater the number of cycles timed, the more nearly the results will be representative of the activity being measured.

Formula for Determining Number of Observations

Number of Cycles to be Timed
Initial observations should be made to determine the number of observations needed to establish a standard time. The initial observations will determine the variability of the time for each element. Statistical methods can help an analyst determine the appropriate number observations using the following formula with 95 percent confidence interval:

N =

40 N

(X2) (X)

(X)2

Where N = required number of observations N = number of initial observation taken X = individual observation times

Example:
The ten initial observations to an operator working on an element insert bolt in the rear part, lock using washer and nut revealed:
Observation No. Observation Time (minutes) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

10 12 14 11 12 14 12 12 10 13

The number of observations at required is computed as : X = 120; X2 = 1,458

Example:
Using the formula:

] [ N = 40 10 (1458) (120) ] [ 120

N = 40 N (X2) (X)2 ) (X)
2

N = 20 observations

Making the Time Study

Rating
As the time study analyst records the data, he also evaluates the operators speed in relation to his opinion of normal speed for such an operation.
Rating is the assessment of the workers rate of working relative to the observers concept of rate corresponding to standard performance (ILO, 1992). Standard performance is the rate of output which qualified workers will naturally achieve without over-exertion as an average over the working day or shift, provided that they know and adhere to the specified method and provided that they are motivated to apply themselves to their work.

Making the Time Study

Rating
A common method is for the analyst to determine the rating factor or the operation as a whole.

Another method is to determine a rating factor for each element of the operation (possible when the time for each elements are fairly long).

Making the Time Study

Rating
The rating can be used as a factor by which the observed time can be multiplied to give the basic time, which is the time it would the motivated, qualified worker to carry out the element at standard rating. A qualified worker is one who has acquired the skill, knowledge and other attributes to carry out the work in hand to satisfactory standards of quantity, quality and safety.
The common scales of rating used are the 60-80, 75-100, and 100-133 scales, and the British Standard scale.

SCALES 60-80 75-100 100-133 0 0 0 0-100 Standard 0

Description

Comparable walking speed

(mi/h) (km/h)

40

50

67

60

75

100

80

100

133

100

125

167

120

150

200

No activity Very slow; clumsy, fumbling movements; 50 operative appears half sleep, with no interest in the job Steady, deliberate, unhurried performance, as of a worker not on piece work but under 75 proper supervision; looks slow, but time is not being intentionally wasted while under observation Brisk, business-like performance, as of an 100 average qualified worker on piece work; (standard necessary standard of quality and accuracy rating) achieved with confidence Very fast; operative exhibits a high degree of assurance, dexterity, and coordination 125 of movement, well above that of an average trained worker Exceptionally fast; requires intense effort and concentration, and is unlikely to be 150 kept up for long periods; a virtuoso performance achieved only by a few outstanding workers.

3.2

4.8

6.4

9.6

Making the Time Study

FOUR Factors of Rating
1. 2. 3. 4.

Skill Consistency Working Conditions Effort (most important)

Factors of Rating
1. Skill
The effect of skill is minimized by timing only people who are skilled. Operators must be fully trained in their work classification before being time-studied.

2. Working condition
Working conditions can affect the performance of an operator. If employees are asked to work in hot, cold, dusty, dirty, noisy environments, their performance will suffer. If operators are required to lift heavy materials in the performance of their duties, 25% more time can be added to the time standard as an allowance. Working conditions are not part of modern rating.

Factors of Rating
3. Consistency
Consistency is the greatest indication of skill. The operator is consistent when he or she runs the elements of the job in the same time, cycle after cycle. Consistency is used to determine the number of cycles. A consistent operator needs to run only few parts before the cycle time is known with accuracy. The skill of the operator should be evident to the time study technician, and the technicians rating of the operator should be high. When inconsistency is present, the technologist must take many more cycles to be acceptably accurate in the time study. This inconsistency tends to affect the technologists attitude and rating of the operator in a negative way, and the best thing to do is find someone else to study.

Factors of Rating
4. Effort
Effort is the most important factor in rating. Effort is the operators speed and/or tempo and is measured based on the normal operator working at 100%. A 100% performance rating is defined as:

Walking 264 feet in 1.00 minute or 3 miles per hour, Assembling thirty 3/8 x 2 pins into a pinboard in 0.435 minute.

Effort can be seen easily in walking. Walking at speeds less than 100% is uncomfortable for most people, and walking at 120% requires a sense of urgency that indicates increased effort.

Making the Time Study

Allowances
The normal time or the basic does not include unavoidable delays, which may not even be observed and other legitimate lost time because watch readings of any time study are taken over a relatively short time. Consequently, analysts must make some adjustments or allowances to compensate for such losses.

Making the Time Study

Main types of Allowances
Fatigue allowances - It provides time for the workers to recover from fatigue incurred as a result of the job or work environment, and these are subdivided into constant and variable fatigue allowances. Special allowances

- It includes many different factors related to the process, equipment, and materials and are termed unavoidable delays, avoidable delays, extra, and policy allowances.

Types of Fatigue Allowances

Constant Allowances
Personal Needs
It includes those stoppages in work necessary for maintaining the general well-being of the employee such as trips to the drinking fountain and the restroom. If the general working conditions and class of work of the employee is good, only a small percentage of the time is needed but for employees whose working conditions have high temperature or extreme cold, their time may be influenced by personal delays.

Types of Fatigue Allowances

Constant Allowances
Basic Fatigue
The basic fatigue allowance is a constant to account for the energy expended to carry out the work and to alleviate monotony. A value of 4 percent of normal time is considered adequate for an operator who is doing light work, while seated, under good working conditions, with no special demands on the sensory or motor systems (ILO, 1957). Between the 5 percent personal needs allowance and the 4 percent basic fatigue allowance, most operators are given an initial 9 percent constant allowance, to which other allowances may be added, if necessary.

Types of Fatigue Allowances

Constant Allowances
Variable Fatigue Allowance
Fatigue is not homogeneous in any respect. It ranges from strictly physical to purely psychological or combinations of the two. The result is a decrease in the will to work. The major factors that affect fatigue include working conditions, especially noise, heat, and humidity; the nature of the work, such as posture, muscular exertion, and tediousness; and the general health of the worker. Although heavy manual work, and thus muscular fatigue is diminishing in industry, due to the mechanization, other fatigue components, such as mental stress and tediousness, may be increasing. Because not all fatigue can be eliminated, proper allowance must be made for the working conditions and repetitiveness of the work.

Types of Special Allowances

Unavoidable Delays
This class of delay applies to effort elements and includes interruptions from the supervisor, dispatcher, time study analyst, and others; material irregularities; difficulty in maintaining tolerances and specifications; and interference delays where multiple machine assignments are made.
Unavoidable delays are frequently a result of material irregularities.

Types of Special Allowances

Avoidable Delays
It is not customary to provide any allowance for avoidable delays, such as visits with other operators for social reasons, uncalled-for work stoppages, and idleness other than rest to overcome fatigue. While operators may take these delays at the expense of output, no allowance for these breaks of work is provided in the development of the standard.

Types of Special Allowances

Extra Allowances
One extra allowance frequently used, especially in the steel industry, is a percentage added to a portion or all of the cycle time to account for the operator observing the process to maintain efficient progress of the operation. This allowance is frequently referred to as attention time allowance and may cover such situations as an inspector observing tin plate coming off the line, first helper observing the conditions of a molten bath or receiving instructions from the melter, or a crane operator receiving directions from the crane hooker. Without this extra allowance, such operators would find it impossible to make the same earning as fellow employees.

Types of Special Allowances

Policy Allowances
It is used to provide a satisfactory level of earnings for a specified level of performance under exceptional circumstances. Such allowances could cover new employees, workers on light duty, and others. These are typically decided by management, perhaps with union negotiations.

Making the Time Study

Applying Allowance
Standard time is the total time in which a job should be completed at a standard performance. Allowances are added to the basic times as follows:
Standard time = Basic Time + (Basic Time X Allowance, in percent) = Basic time X (1 + Allowance, in percent) An alternative approach is to formulate the allowances as a fraction of the total workday, since the actual production time might not be known. In that case, the expression for standard time is: Basic Time --------------------------------------(1 allowance, in percent)

Standard time =