Article Presentation by Carinne Karlick ESL 501

According to Richards, The mastery of speaking English is a priority for most second language learners. The question that has long been debated: What is the best approach to teaching oral language skills? A variety of approaches have been implemented by teachers and have been the focus of textbooks.

Direct Approaches focus on specific features of oral interaction.

Examples: topic management, questioning strategies and turn-taking

Indirect approaches create conditions for oral interactions through group work, task work and other strategies (Richards, 1990).

Composed of idea units (conjoined short phrases) Planned (ex: lecture) or unplanned (ex: conversation) Employs more generic words than written language Contains slips and errors reflecting on-line processing Involved reciprocity (ex: interactions are jointly constructed) Shows variation (ex: between formal and casual speech) reflecting speaker roles, speaking purpose, and the context

According to Richards (2010), designing speaking activities and instruction materials for L2 learners it is important to recognize the different functions speaking performs and the different purposes our students need speaking skills. Brown and Yule (1983) distinguish between interactional (social) functions of speaking and transactional functions (exchange of information).

After designing his own materials and collaborating with teachers in workshops, Richards uses an expanded three part version of Brown& Yules framework (after Jones, 1996 and Burns, 1998)

Talk as interaction Talk as transaction Talk as performance

FEATURES

SKILLS

Primarily social function Reflects role relationships Reflects speakers identity May be formal or casual Uses conversational conventions and register Reflects politeness Employs generic words Is jointly constructed

Open and close conversations Choosing topics Turn-taking Recounting recent experiences Interrupting Reacting to others Making small talk Using adjacency-pairs

Commonly referred to as conversation According to Richards, mastering the art of talk as interaction is difficult and may not be important to all learners. Some students may feel awkward and at a loss for words in interactional situations. They may avoid such situations. It puts students at a disadvantage when conversation is important.

Most difficult to teach because it is complex and has unspoken rules Best Taught Naturalistic dialogues Modeling opening and closing conversation Recounting personal experience Practice reacting to what others say.

For example: Students are given dialogue and work in pairs adding reactions that have been omitted. Or students practice conversation starters and have to respond by asking 2 follow up questions.

FEATURES

SKILLS

It has an informational focus The main focus is the message & not the participants Participants make use of communication strategies to make themselves understood Frequent questions, repetitions, and comprehension checks Language accuracy is not always important

Explaining an intention or need Describing something Asking questions Confirming information Justifying an opinion Making suggestions Clarifying understanding Making comparisons Agreeing and disagreeing

The focus on what is said or done The message is the central focus and ensuring that the speaker is understood clearly. Burns identifies 2 types: - One focuses on giving/receiving info and on what is said or achieved. - The second focuses on getting goods or services.

More easily planned with use of current materials, role play and real-world transactions. Best Taught Ranking activities Brainstorming Group discussion

For example: Students prepare a list of controversial statements, exchange and discuss them. For example: Students act out real world transactions in three stages: preparation, modeling, practice/review

Simulation or Role Play

FEATURES

SKILLS

Focus on both message and audience Reflects organization and sequence Form and accuracy are important More like written language It is often monologic

Using appropriate format Info presented in appropriate sequence Maintain engagement with audience Use proper punctuation and grammar Use appropriate vocabulary Use appropriate opening and closing

Refers to talk that transmits information before an audience like performances, public announcements and speeches. In a school setting this type of talk could be presenting an oral report, conducting a class debate or giving a speech. It is usually evaluated according to its impact on the listener.

This requires a different teaching strategy. According to Jones (1996), talk as performance need to be prepared for and scaffold the same way as written text and strategies used to make text accessible applied to formal uses of spoken language.

Best Taught

Providing examples: Speeches, oral

presentations, stories though video/audio.

Examples are then analyzed to understand how texts work and what their linguistic features are. Questions to guide the process are:

What is the speakers purpose? Who is the audience? What info does the audience expect? How does the talk begin/develop/end? What strategies are involved? What language is used?

Students then work together on planning their own text to present.

When planning speaking activities:

Determine what kinds of speaking skills will the course focus on (interaction, transaction, performance.) Perform an informal needs analysis through questionnaires, interviews, communicative tasks etc. Then identify the teaching strategies for learners to acquire each kind of talk. Determine the expected level of performance and the criteria used to assess.

Teachers need to consider what the completion of the activity involves according to the type (interaction, transaction or performance) of talk and classroom activity. Teachers should ask themselves:
How will the activity be modeled? What language support will be needed? What resources will be used? What learning arrangements will be needed? What level of performance is expected? How will the feedback be given?

It is suggested to assign one student be an observer during a discussion Talk as Interaction

Introduces new topics effectively, contributes equally by taking turns, interrupting appropriately The speakers need is expressed effectively, a description is clear. Clarity of presentation (is it organized and comprehensible?) Use of discourse markers, repetition, stress to emphasize important points. Audience engaged when appropriate

Talk as Transaction

Talk as performance