Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing: Theory and Practice

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
Theory and Practice

Examples of oscillation
ball on a spring pendulum rotating earth
Pulse
The ball starts to oscillate (terombang-ambing) as soon as it is pushed
Oscillation
Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Movement of the ball over time

Frequency
Time From the duration of one oscillation T the frequency f (number of oscillations per second) is calculated:
One full oscillation T
T f 1

The actual displacement a is termed as:
a A sin
a
Time
90
180
270
360
Phase

Spectrum of sound
Frequency range Hz Description
Example
0 - 20 20 - 20.000 > 20.000
Infrasound
Audible sound Ultrasound
Earth quake Speech, music Bat (kelelawar)

Atomic structures
gas
liquid
solid
low density weak bonding forces
medium density medium bonding forces
high density strong bonding forces crystallographic structure

Understanding wave propagation:
Ball = atom
Spring = elastic bonding force
T
distance travelled
During one oscillation T the wave front propagates by the distance :
Distance travelled
From this we derive:

c T
or
c f
Wave equation

Sound propagation (perambatan)
Longitudinal wave
Direction of oscillation
Direction of propagation

Sound propagation
Transverse wave
Direction of oscillation
Direction of propagation

Wave propagation (perambatan gelombang)
Longitudinal waves propagate in all kind of materials. Transverse waves only propagate in solid bodies. Due to the different type of oscillation, transverse waves travel at lower speeds. Sound velocity mainly depends on : the density and E-modulus of the material.
Air Water Steel, long Steel, trans 330 m/s
1480 m/s
5920 m/s 3250 m/s

Reflection and Transmission
As soon as a sound wave comes to a change in material characteristics ,e.g. the surface of a workpiece, or an internal inclusion, wave propagation will change too:

Behaviour at an interface
Medium 1 Medium 2
Incoming wave
Transmitted wave
Reflected wave
Interface

Reflection + Transmission: Perspex - Steel
1,87
Incoming wave
1,0 0,87
Transmitted wave
Reflected wave
Perspex
Steel

Reflection + Transmission: Steel - Perspex
Incoming wave
1,0
Transmitted wave
0,13
-0,87
Reflected wave
Perspex
Steel

Amplitude of sound transmissions:
Water - Steel
Copper - Steel
Steel - Air Strong reflection with inverted phase No transmission
Strong reflection No reflection Double transmission Single transmission

Piezoelectric Effect
+
Battery
Piezoelectrical Crystal (Quartz)


The crystal gets thicker, due to a distortion of the crystal lattice


Piezoelektrik adalah suatu kemampuan yang dimiliki sebagian kristal maupun bahanbahan tertentu lainnya yang dapat menghasilkan suatu arus listrik jika mendapatkan perlakuan tekanan
+
The effect inverses with polarity change

Sound wave with frequency f
U(f)
An alternating voltage generates crystal oscillations at the frequency f


Short pulse ( < 1 s )
A short voltage pulse generates an oscillation at the crystals resonant frequency f0


Reception of ultrasonic waves
A sound wave hitting a piezoelectric crystal, induces crystal vibration which then causes electrical voltages at the crystal surfaces. Electrical energy Piezoelectrical crystal
Ultrasonic wave

Ultrasonic Probes
socket crystal Damping (redaman) Delay / protecting face Electrical matching Cable
Straight beam probe
TR-probe
Angle beam probe

Radio Frequency (RF) signal (short)
100 ns

RF signal (medium)

Sound field
Crystal
Focus
Accoustical axis
Angle of divergence
6
D0
Near field
Far field

Block diagram: Ultrasonic Instrument
amplifier
IP
screen
BE
horizontal sweep clock Pulser/nadi
probe work piece


Sound reflection at a flaw
s
Probe
Sound travel path
Flaw
Work piece

Plate testing
IP BE
plate
delamination
10
IP = Initial pulse
F = Flaw
BE = Backwall echo

Wall thickness measurement
s
s
Corrosion
10

Through transmission testing
Through transmission signal
R
0 2 4 6 8 10
Flaw

Weld inspection
a = s sin
F
s
0 20 40 60 80 100
a' = a - x
d' = s cos d = 2T - t'
= probe angle s = sound path a = surface distance a = reduced surface distance d = virtual depth d = actual depth T = material thickness
Work piece with welding
a a' s
Lack of fusion

Straight beam inspection techniques:
Direct contact, single element probe Direct contact, Fixed delay
dual element probe
Through transmission
Immersion testing

Immersion testing (pencelupan)
1
surface = sound entry backwall IP
2
water delay
flaw
IE
1
BE
IP
IE
2
BE
F
IP = Initial pulse F = Flaw BE = Backwall echo

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing: Theory and Practice

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Theory and Practice