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Cartilage and Bone

In an adult human skeleton


206 bones and numerous cartilage

Cartilage & Bone tissues dense regular connective tissue Cartilage gelatinous intercellular substance Bone calcified, rigid and hard
intercellular substance

Cartilage / Gristle
Forms the bulk of the skeleton of the fetus in utero Serve as a supporting framework for the body of the fetus Has the capacity to grow rapidly at conditions of relatively low oxygen tension Exists in and around joints, the sternal ends of ribs, some part of the respiratory system and external ear, and in tendons and ligaments

Cartilage tissue: Composition and Microscopic Structure


A. Chrondocyte / Cartilage cell In vivo, it fills the lacunae (cavities) where it resides Vary in shape and size: Young chondrocyte elliptical with long axes Mature chondrocyte larger and round

A. Chrondocyte / Cartilage cell Cytoplasm granular and basophilic contains mitochondria, rER and Golgi complex contains inclusions: fat droplets and glycogen granules possess cytoplasmic processes Nucleus ovoid Nourished by diffusion of nutrients

Isogenous cells daughter cells of the young chondrocyte separated from each other by thin layer of intercellular substance

B. Cartilage Matrix
- consists of an amorphous ground substance where extracellular fibers are embedded

Ground substance - Apart from water (70-80% wet weight of the tissue) - Mostly made up of proteoglycans - Contains chondronectin ,a fibronectin-like substance that promotes the adherence of collagen fibers to the cell surface of the chondrocyte Extracellular fibers -consist of collagen and elastic

Types of Cartilage
A. Hyaline Cartilage Glistening ,smooth, and pearly white Most abundant type of cartilage Serves as a temporary skeleton for the fetus Comprises the epiphyseal plate In adults, persists only in joints as articular cartilage Extracellular fiber: Type II collagen fibers (40% of the dry weight of the tissue)

B. Elastic Cartilage More flexible (than hyaline cartilage) and yellowish in fresh specimen because of the elastic fibers Less abundant matrix Extracellular fiber: Type II collagen fiber Present in - Auricle - External acoustic meatus - Auditory tube - Epiglottis - Other parts of the larynx

C. Fibrous Cartilage Can withstand greater stress White in fresh specimen Extracellular fiber: Type I collagen fibers (thicker than type II) Makes up the intervebral discs, articular discs, glenoid ,acetabular labra Found in the surface layers of tendons and ligaments Can be regarded as a transitional stage between dense regular connective tissue and cartilage

With a few exceptions, notably the articular cartilages, all cartilages are enveloped by dense irregular connective tissue. Perichondrium - enveloped by dense irregular connective tissue - has chondrogenic potency (ability to form cartilage) - consists of
Fibrous layer outer layer Chondrogenic layer an inner more cellular layer

Osteoprogenitor cells Are stem cells found at the chondrogenic layer that are apposed to the surface of the cartilage Can transform into either chondroblasts or osteoblast Chondroblast Are cells that synthesize the precursors of the extracellular fibers and the other organic constituents of cartilage matrix Chondrocytes Are cells that are formed from the chondroblasts which are surrounded by the matrix they secreted and acquired in the lacunae

Bone
Comprise the bulk of the adult skeleton Forms a rigid framework for the body Protects vital organs Serves as levers for muscles Storehouses for calcium and phosphorus Contain bone marrow where most of the formed elements of blood are produced

Types of Bones According to Shape


1) Long bone confined to the extremities is tubular and consists of:
Body or shaft has a hollow core (medullary cavity) Proximal & distal epiphyses two ends that are covered on their articulating surfaces by hyaline cartilage (articular cartilage)

2) Short bones cuboidal and are confined to the wrist and ankle 3) Flat bones are typified by the sternum, scapulae and many bones of the skull 4) Irregular bones include the vertebrae, hip bones and bones of the skull that are not flat 5) Sesamoid bones are in the shape of small nodules develop in tendons that rub bony surfaces

Forms of Bone Tissue


1) Spongy bone (cancellous) - inner region where the bone tissue has numerous spaces that are visible to the naked eye - may be minimal in amount or even entirely absent - in terms of volume, there is more spongy bone than compact bone in the body - accounts for 20 25% of the body s total skeletal mass

2) Compact bone (cortical; dense) - outer casing of bone tissue that appears as a solid mass -accounts for 75 80% of the body s total skeletal mass Both forms are present in all bones except in: Bones where the central area is occupied by air sinuses Medullary cavity e.g. long bones

Periosteum and Endosteum


All surfaces of bones, except articulating surfaces and surfaces where muscles, tendons, and ligaments are attached, are either lined or covered by dense irregular connective tissue that is special because it has osteogenic potency (ability to form bone). Periosteum covers the external surfaces of bone Endosteum lines the internal surfaces and cavities in bone

Periosteum - consist of
fibrous layer outer layer osteogenic layer inner more cellular layer Osteoprogenitor cells stem cells found at the osteogenic layer that are apposed to the surface of the bone Sharpeys fiber trapped collagen fibers serve to anchor the periosteum to the bone more firmly

Endosteum
- lines all the medullary,

marrow and vascular cavities of bones - thinner than periosteum - often consists simply of a single layer of osteoprogenitor cells

Composition, Microscopic Structure and Architecture of Bone Tissue


Bone matrix- very hard intercellular substance Lamellae- concentric rings of hard, calcified extracellular matrix Lacunae- cavities dispersed uniformly in lamellae (small hollow space) Canaliculi- small canals of lacunae filled with extracellular fluid Osteocyte- cell occupying as lacuna; maintain bones daily metabolism

Architecture of Spongy Bone


Trabeculae (spicule)- small interconnecting bone fragments that form the framework of bone marrow cavities Osteocyte- derive nutrients directly or indirectly from blood vessels in the bone marrow

Spongy Bone

Architecture of Compact Bone


1. Haversian Systems (osteons)- units of bone tissue aligned with stress Haversian canal (canal of Havers)- tiny endosteum-lined longitudinal vascular channel; contains blood vessels and nerves Cement line- thin layer of demineralized matrix; delineates the boundaries of Haverian system Volkmanns canal- transverse channels that convey vessels and nerves from the periosteum to the Haversian systems

Compact Bone

Architecture of Compact Bone


2. Interstitial Lamellae- fill spaces between Haversian systems fragments of older osteons destroyed partially during growth
3. Circumferential Lamellae- most developed in long bones Outer Circumferential Lamellae- encircle the bone beneath the periosteum Inner Circumferential Lamellae- encircle the medullary cavity

Interstitial & Circumferential lamellae

Bone Matrix
1. Ground Substance Water- main component Inorganic- 2/3 of dry weight of the bone Organic- 1/3 of dry weight 2. Extracellular Fibers Type I collagen fibers- 90% of organic content of bone matrix; makes bone acidophilic

Cells of the Bone

1. 2. 3. 4.

Osteoprogenitor Osteoblast Osteocyte Osteoclast

1. Osteoprogenitor (osteogenic cell)

Differentiate from embryonic mesenchymal cells Can multiply infinitely but can differentiate only into osteoblasts or chondroblasts Fusiform cells

Osteoprogenitor cells

2. Osteoblast

Differentiate from osteoprogenitor cell Synthesizes precursors of collagen fibers & organic constituents of bone matrix Relatively large cell (round, polygonal or cuboidal in shape) Numerous cytoplasmic processes Well-developed Golgi complex Single nucleus Aid in bone resorption

Osteoblast

3. Osteocyte
Cells that occupy lacunae in the bone tissue Osteoid tissue- uncalcified bone matrix; separates osteocyte within a lacuna from calcified matrix In H & E prep, flat cells with numerous cytoplasmic processes Gap type- side-to-side junctions Do not divide

Osteocyte

4. Osteoclast
Large (up to 150 m in diameter) Multinucleated cells Howships lacunae- concavities that represent areas of resorbed bone Striated border (ruffled border)- villuslike processes of plasmalemma that branch & anastomose with one another Bone resorption- breakdown of bone Colony-Forming-Unit-Granulocyte Macrophage (CFU-GM)

Osteoclast

Growth of Cartilage
Interstitial Growth (Endogenous Growth) chondrocytes within the cartilage divide by mitosis and elaborate new matrix. Isogenous Cells - Daughter cells from these divisions tend to remain in clusters (nests) which represent the descendants of a single chondrocyte. It is responsible for the growth in length of long bones.

Appositional Growth (Exogenous Growth)

occurs when the "chondrogenic" cells of the perichondrium multiply and differentiate into chondroblasts. Which adds to the cartilage matrix on the outer surface. It is responsible for the growth in width.

Calcification
The deposition of calcium salts. It is because of this lack of a direct blood supply that cartilage heals so poorly. With age, cartilage tends to calcify. This retards diffusion of nutrients through the matrix and may result in chondrocyte death and degeneration of the cartilage.

Bone Formation
Also known as Osteogenesis; Ossification

Intramembranous This takes place within condensations of mesenchymal tissue. Endochondral This takes place in areas where a hyaline cartilage exists.

Intramembranous Ossification
1. An center of ossification appears in the fibrous connective tissue membrane 2. Bone matrix (osteoid) is secreted within the fibrous membrane. 3. Woven bone and periosteum form. 4. Bone collar of compact bone forms and red marrow appears.

Endochondral Ossification
Formation of periosteum Formation of bone collar Calcification of matrix Invasion of periosteal bud Formation of trabeculae

Bone Growth
Growth occurs at the epiphyseal plate Epiphyseal Plate - allows the diaphysis of the bone to increase in length until early adulthood - is found in children and adolescents; in adults, who have stopped growing, the plate is replaced by an epiphyseal line.

5 Areas of Epiphyseal Plate


1. Zone of resting cartilage. 2. Zone of proliferation . 3. Zone of maturation / hypertrophy. 4. Zone of calcification. 5. Zone of ossification.
Hypertrophic zone of epiphyseal plate showing three zones: maturation (top), degenerative (middle) and provisional calcification (bottom).

Bone Remodeling
External
Occurs when external factors afffect it. Accomplished by bone resorption and deposition of bone tissues in other areas.

Internal
Haversian System Resorption of exsisting systems Formation of new ones in the reabsorbed areas.

Nutritional Effects on Bone


Calcium and Phosphorus- poor mineralization of the bones. Vitamin D - poor intestinal absorption of calcium Rickets (in children), Osteomalacia (in adults) Vitamin C poor production of bone marrow Scurvy Vitamin A affects osteoblasts/clasts and retards bone growth

Endocrine Effects on Bone


Osteoclast-stimulating factor.

Parathyroid hormone primary regulator of blood calcium level. Produced by the parathyroid gland. Calcitonin inhibits bone reabsorption. It is secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland. Gonadal Hormones
In Females: Estrogen In Males: Androgens

Growth Hormone secreted by the pituiary gland. Influences bone growth. Dwarfism Gigantism Acromegaly

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