Body Systems

Bio 30
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Digestion is the process that breaks
down large organic molecules into
smaller components
 The components to digestion:
• Ingestion - taking in food
• Mechanical Processing
• Digestion - breaking down food
• Secretion
• Absorption - diffusion of nutrients into the blood
and tissue
• Egestion - removal of materials from the food
that cannot be digested
• Compaction
• Excretion
Pathway of food through the
digestive tract
 Pathway of food through the
digestive tract:
• Digestion begins in the mouth. The teeth
mechanically breakdown food into smaller
pieces.
• The tongue moves the food so that it can be
chewed or swallowed. Salivary glands release
enzymes which further breakdown food by
chemical digestion.
• The food then moves through the alimentary
canal or digestive tract. It travels down the
esophagus (Hollow Muscle) towards the
stomach. The esophagus has wavelike
contractions to move the food along. This is
called peristalsis.
• Food is prevented
from entering the
respiratory system by
the epiglottis, a small
flap of tissue that
closes off the trachea.
The food eventually
enters into the
stomach through the
cardiac sphincter.
• The stomach acid
(hydrochloric acid)
and enzymes
breakdown food
further. The partially
digested food leaves
the stomach through
the pyloric sphincter
and moves into the
small intestine.
 3 Main roles of Stomach
1. Bulk Storage of Food
2. Mechanical breakdown of materials
3. Chemical digestion – using acids and
enzymes
• The small intestine is about 7 meters in length,
2.5 - 3 cm diameter and the majority of digestion
occurs in the first section of the small intestine.

• 1st segment - duodenum

• 2nd - jejunum
• 3rd and the last part ileum
– Enter large intestine
• Villi - long finger like tubes that line the small
instestine
– help to increase the surface area of the intestine as
much as ten times.
– Nutrients that are extracted from food in the small
intestine are absorbed by the villi and sent into the
bloodstream.
Villi
• The large intestine
(colon)
• Ascending
• Transverse
• Desending
• 1.5 meters in length,
collects the digestive
wastes from the small
intestine and reabsorbs
as much water from it as
possible.
• The rest of the wastes
are then passed into the
rectum and eventually
are egested out through
the anus as feces.
 The role of the pancreas, liver
and gallbladder
• Pancreas - the pancreas secretes
enzymes to aid in the process of digestion.
It also releases bicarbonate ions into the
small intestine.
• This neutralizes the
hydrochloric acid mixed
with the food from the
stomach.
 The role of the pancreas, liver
and gallbladder
• liver and gallbladder - the liver produces
bile and the gallbladder stores it. Bile
breaks down fats
• The appendix is a small projection coming off
of the large intestine. It appears to have no
purpose in
the human body, but
some scientists believe
that it is involved in the
prevention of some
cancers.
Review Video
Pathway of food through the
digestive tract
 TRANSPORT AND
CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS
 Using this Graph - What
determines your max heart rate
 Max Heart Rate
• Equals
220 – Age beats/min

• With the average resting heart rate for a

man being 70 beats per minute, and for a
woman 75 beats per minute.
 There are two kinds of transport in
organisms: passive or active transport

• Jellyfish and sponges use passive transport.

Materials are passively taken into the body and
transported by diffusion and osmosis.
– This is possible because they live in a watery
environment.
• Organisms that transport materials by active
transport are usually large and have higher
energy demands.
– Blood is actively transported through vessels to all
parts of the body.
There are two kinds of
circulatory systems:
Open and Closed
• Open Circulatory System: the simpler of the two
• Blood does not flow in vessels but instead sloshes
around randomly in the space between the internal
organs
• Blood may be moved by a tubular (rod shaped) heart
• Animals that have an open circulatory system do not rely
on the blood to carry their oxygen. Instead it functions to
transport only nutrients and wastes. A tracheal system
would carry oxygen.
• found in animals such as roundworms and arthropods
(grasshoppers, crustaceans etc.)
 Closed Circulatory System:
• more complex
• blood is confined to
vessels driven by one or
more hearts
• capillaries serve as the
site for material exchange
• found in animals such as
earthworms, mollusks
and vertebrates
Heart Chambers
2 Chambered Heart

Can you see something

wrong with this Picture?
 2 Chambered Heart
• found in fish
• one atrium and one ventricle
• not very efficient because by the time the
blood leaves the heart and passes
through the capillaries in the gills, the
pressure has dropped and it may not be
able to pass through the rest of the
body's capillaries with
equal efficiency.
3 Chambered Heart
 3 Chambered Heart
• found in amphibians
• two atria and one ventricle
• one atrium receives blood from the lungs
(oxygenated) and the other from the rest of the
body (deoxygenated)
• not very efficient because the oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood will enter into the ventricle
to be pumped to the rest of the body and will
partially mix (ridges in the heart direct the blood
and prevent complete mixing)
 3-4 Chambered Heart
• found in reptiles like turtles, snakes and
lizards
• 2 atria and 1 ventricle
• there is an incomplete separation of the
ventricle (the septum has not completely
divided the ventricle)
 4 Chambered Heart
• found in crocodiles,
birds and mammals
• 2 atria and 2
ventricles
• very efficient because
the oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood
do not mix
 Pulmonary Circulation
• carries deoxygenated
blood to the lungs and
oxygenated blood
back to the heart
 Systemic Circulation
• carries oxygenated
blood to the body and
returns deoxygenated
blood back to the
heart within the
systemic circulation
there are four major
branches
• renal circulation - to the kidneys
• coronary - to the heart
• cranial - to the brain
• portal or hepatic - to the liver and
gastrointestinal tract
Components of the Blood:
Hemocrit and Plasma
 Hemocrit consists of three parts:

1. Red Blood Cells

• have no nucleus
• formed in the red
marrow of long
bones main function
is to transport
oxygen
• contain hemoglobin
which has the
capability to carry
oxygen
 Hemocrit consists of three parts:
2 White Blood Cells
• also called leucocytes
• have a nucleus
• involved in fighting
infection by
surrounding and
engulfing the foreign
particle
 Hemocrit consists of three parts
3 Platelets
• involved in blood
clotting by releasing
substances at the site
of the wound that
begin the formation of
a network on which
platelets are caught
• do not have a nucleus
 Plasma
• the fluid portion of the blood that holds the
other particles
– dissolved proteins, glucose, mineral ions, hormones,
carbon dioxide
 Blood flow through the heart
• Deoxygenated blood enters the heart from the upper body into the
superior vena cava, and from the lower body into the inferior vena
cava. It then flows down to enter the right atrium and flows through
the tricuspid valve. The deoxygenated blood can now be found in
the right ventricle. The semi-lunar (Pulmonary) valve allows the
blood to leave the interior of the heart by traveling up into the
pulmonary arteries. The blood is bound for the left and right lungs
where it will become rich in oxygen before returning to the heart.
Oxygenated blood returns from the lungs in the pulmonary veins. It
flows directly down into the left atrium. When the blood passes by
the bicuspid valve it well arrive at the left ventricle. The blood then
flows upwards and through the aorta. The strong aorta pumps blood
out of the heart to the rest of the body.
Blood flow through the heart

Bicuspid valve

Semi lunar valve

Immune System
 The body's first line of defense is
physical.
• The body's first line of defense is physical.
• skin.
• mucus and cilia
• stomach acid
• enzyme within our tears
 Blood is also an important part of
our immune system
• Within our blood, we carry the various
cells responsible for fighting disease.
• white blood cells (phagocytes /
macrophages)
• special proteins called antibodies
– produced in the lymphocytes in response to
markers on foreign bodies (antigens).
There are two types of lymphocytes

• the T-cells (produced in the bone marrow and stored in the thymus
gland)
• B-cells (make antibodies).
• The T -cells seek out the intruder and signal the other cells to attack
them.

• Antibodies are engineered to target a specific foreign body.

Unfortunately because of this, the antibody for influenza is useless
against HIV or polio, and new ones have to be made.
• Most bacteria or viruses have several antigen markers on their
membrane, and the more antibodies that bond to it, the more
obvious the invader is to the wandering macrophages that will engulf
and destroy them.
 There are four types of T-cells
• Helper T-cells
– which identify the antigen and signal the production of
• Killer T-cells,
– which actively attack invaders by puncturing their cell membrane
and destroying them.
– also destroy mutated cells when they find them, though
sometimes these cells manage to form a tumor first.
• Suppressor T -cells
– which signal the immune system to shut down once a threat has
been eliminated. Once the invader has been killed most of the T
-cells and B-cells that were used to kill it will begin to die off.
• Memory T-cell
– which retains an imprint of the antigen(s) so that should the
invader return, your body can deal with them quickly before they
become established.
 Allergies
• Allergies occur when your immune system
mistakes harmless cells for harmful
invaders, causing tissue swelling, mucous
secretion and sometimes constricted air
passages.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Pathway of air through the
respiratory system
• Air enters through either the nose or
mouth.
• Large particles are stopped by tiny hair
and mucous that line the passageways of
the nose.
• The nasal cavities now open into the
pharynx.
•
• The pharynx leads to two tubes: esophagus and
trachea.
• The esophagus leads to the digestive system
and the trachea leads to the rest of the
respiratory system.
• Cilia catch debris to prevent it from
traveling through the windpipe (trachea).

• The windpipe is made of stiff cartilage

rings. This important so that the windpipe
does not collapse when exhaling.
• The epiglottis is the flap-like structure that
covers the opening to the trachea when food is
swallowed.
• Air is then carried down the windpipe to the
larynx (voice box). The vocal cords that make up
• the voice box vibrate when air is forced from the
lungs toward the pharynx. The Adam's apple ( a
thick band of cartilage) protects the voice box.
• Inhaled air now moves from the trachea
into two bronchi (singular: bronchus)
which branch
• into the left and right lungs. The bronchi
branch into bronchioles and at the end of
the bronchioles you will find tiny sacs
called alveoli.
• The alveoli contain capillaries which take
carbon dioxide from the blood and replace
it with oxygen from the
inhaled air.
 Breathing is controlled by several
muscles:
• Diaphragm - located under the lungs separating
the chest cavity from the abdomen. The
diaphragm contracts and flattens to draw air into
the lungs. When it relaxes and becomes dome
shaped under the rib cage, it helps to push air
out of the lungs.
• External Intercostal muscles - found between
the ribs. Helps to pull the ribs upward and
outward to allow for the movement of air into
the lungs.
• Internal Intercostal
muscles - pull the rib
cage downward during
times of extreme exercise.
• The intercostal muscles
are not used during
normal breathing.
 Breathing is regulated by
chemoreceptors:
• Carbon dioxide chemoreceptors - when carbon
dioxide dissolves in the blood it creates an acid.
When the acid levels get too high, it activates
the medulla oblongata of the brain to increase
the movements of the diaphragm and rib
muscles .. This increases the respiration rate
and lowers the carbon dioxide levels.
• Oxygen chemoreceptors - detect low oxygen
levels and stimulate the medulla oblongata.
– These are only used as a backup to the carbon
dioxide chemoreceptors.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system helps regulate body
processes by releasing hormones.

Hormones are chemicals produced by

glands and secreted into the blood.
Table 10-1
 The Pituitary Gland
• is the master gland.
– It controls all other endocrine glands
• A gland knows when to stop producing a
hormone because of negative feedback.
– Example: Luteinizing hormone activates the
release of testosterone. When testosterone
reaches acceptable levels, it exerts a negative
effect on LH.
– This now stops testosterone production.
 Pancreas
• composed of the Islets of Langerhans
which produce insulin and glucagon
• insulin and glucagon work as opposites
 Insulin Glucagon
• decreases blood - increases blood sugar
sugar - produced by the
• produced by the beta alpha cells of the
cells of the Islets of Islets of Langerhans
Langerhans - promotes the
• promotes liver, conversion of
muscle and other glycogen to glucose
cells to absorb which can now be
glucose from the absorbed by the
blood. In the liver the blood
glucose is stored as
glycogen.
• Table 10-1

• Case Study 236 (use 230 to help answer

questions)
EXCRETORY SYSTEM

the excretory system removes

waste and maintains water
balance in the body
 General pathway of fluid through
the kidney
• waste filled blood is carried from the aorta to the
renal arteries
• the waste that is filtered from the blood leaves
the kidney through the ureter
• the ureter carries the
waste to the urinary
bladder
• eventually the waste
leaves the body through
the urethra
Major components of a kidney
• cortex - a lightly
colored outer region
• medulla - a darker,
reddish-brown inner
region
• renal pelvis - a flat,
funnel shaped cavity
that collects the urine
into the ureters
 Nephrons

million filtering units making up

the kidneys
 Pathway of blood through the
kidney
• waste filled blood enters into the kidney through
the renal artery
• this now branches into the afferent arterioles
which now sends blood to the nephron
• blood now travels through the glomerulus. The
blood gets filtered here. The wastes are left
behind and the clean blood now leaves through
the efferent arteriole
• a eventually the filtered blood leaves the kidney
through the renal vein
 Pathway of waste through the
nephron
• the waste that was left at the glomerulus enters
into a structure that surrounds it
- the Bowman's capsule
• from there the waste travels to the proximal
tubule, to the loop of Henle, on through the
distal tubule and then into the collecting ducts
• the collecting ducts send the waste (urine) out to
the ureter. The urine continues through to the
urinary bladder and then out of the body
through the urethra
 Three steps of Urine Formation

• Filtration - accomplished by the

movement of fluids from the blood into
the Bowman's capsule
• Reabsorption - involves the selective
transfer of essential solutes and water
back into the blood
• Secretion - involves the movement of
wastes from the blood into the nephron
Water regulation by the kidneys

• ADH (antidiuretic hormone) acts on the

kidneys to increase water absorption.
When ADH is released, a more
concentrated urine (less water) is
produced, thereby conserving body water.
(Alcohol)
 What are kidney
stones?
• Mineral solutes from the blood that are
absorbed into the waste
• They form into stones which become
lodged in the renal pelvis or ureter
• The pain from kidney stones results from
the tissues that tear as the stone moves
towards the bladder. (Down the ?)
• Sound waves used to break up stones
SKELETAL/MUSCULAR SYSTEM
SKELETAL/MUSCULAR SYSTEM
• Two types of skeletons:
– Exoskeleton -
– Endoskeleton -
• The Human Skeleton
• a total of ____bones make up the human skeleton
• there are two major divisions of the skeleton:
• Axial skeleton
• includes the skull, backbone, ribs, breastbone
Appendiculuar skeleton
• includes limbs, pectoral and pelvic girdle
•
Two major divisions of the skeleton:
• Axial skeleton
includes the skull, backbone, ribs,
breastbone
• Appendiculuar skeleton
includes limbs, pectoral and pelvic girdle
Axial skeleton Appendiculuar
skeleton
 How bones develop
• bones form in either cartilage or fibrous
connective tissue cells called osteoblasts
form bone tissue inside the cartilage
• the cartilage cells begin to die as calcium
and phosphate ions are deposited in the
cartilage. The bone tissue hardens in a
process called ossification.
• eventually canals grow together to form
the bone marrow
 Types of joints

1. Immovable (Fibrous joints) - joints have

no gaps between the bones
– example: skull
2. Slightly movable (Cartilaginous joints)
• have small bands of cartilage between the
bones that act as shock absorbers
- example: vertebrae
3. Freely movable (Synovial joints) - has synovial fluids
between the bones to lubricate and reduce friction of the
moving bones
– example: arms and legs
– freely movable joints are classified into different groups
• Based on the type of movement that the joint permits:
– a) Ball and Socket - movement in all directions - example:
shoulder
– b) Gliding - movement is back and forth and side to side -
example: ankle
– c) Pivot - rotational movement - example: neck
– d) Hinge - movement is back and forth only - example: knee
 What is the difference between
ligaments and tendons?
• Ligaments - join _______to_______

VID
• Tendons - join _______to________

VID
• Cartilage ??
• Bursa are sacs of fluid that are found
between the bone and the tendon to
reduce friction
Musculature System
Muscle Man
• Trapezoids
• Deltoid
• Pectorals
• Triceps Brachii
• Latissimus dorsi
• Gluteus maximus
• Bicep femoris
• Rectus Femoris
• Gastrocnemius
• Abdominal
 Muscle Structure and Mechanics
• 1. Voluntary Muscle - muscle that is regulated
consciously
– a) Skeletal muscle - voluntary muscle that is attached to bone -
example: arm
• 2. Involuntary Muscle - muscle that is not regulated
consciously
– a) Smooth muscle - involuntary muscle that controls movement
of food along the digestive tract and regulates diameter of the
blood vessels
– - example: stomach
• b) Cardiac muscle - involuntary muscle found in the
heart -
• contractions of the filaments making up
the muscle (actin and myosin filaments)
enable a muscle to move

Video
 Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness
(DOMS)
• Muscle soreness that occurs hours post exercise
and peaks 2 days (48 hours) following exercise
• Associated more with amount of tension
developed in the muscle than with fatigue
NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is a complex

communications network in the body. It
has many branches and divisions.
Two main divisions are the central
nervous system (CNS) and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS).

• The CNS contains the brain and spinal

cord.
• The PNS is divided into the
– somatic (voluntary) system, Arms and Legs
– autonomic (involuntary) system, Organs
(heart)
 Autonomic System
• The autonomic system is divided into two
groups the sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems.
• The sympathetic system prepares the
body for stress. (Fight or Flight)
• The parasympathetic system brings the
body back to a state of relaxation. (Times
of Rest, Sleep)
 Types of Neurons
• The basic structure of function within the
nervous system is a cell called a neuron.
• Neurons carry information or nerve impulses
from one location to another. There are three
types of neurons:
– Sensory neurons - pick up information from the
environment
– Motor neurons - carry information to the muscles or
glands, causing them to act.
– Interneurons - carry information between the sensory
and motor neurons
 Structure of a Neuron

• Neurons consist of a cell body, axons and dendrites. The

dendrites receive the nerve impulses and conduct them
toward the cell body. The cell body transmits the
impulses down the axon toward other neurons.
• The axon is coated with a protective fatty protein called
myelin sheath.
• The myelin sheath is made by the
Schwann cells.
• There are sections between the myelin
sheath called the Nodes of Ranvier.
 Pathway of a nerve impulse
• Nerve impulses are an electrochemical message created by the movement
of ions through the axon. A normal resting nerve has more positive charges
along the outside and negative charges along the inside of the axon. This
difference is called the resting potential. The membrane is said to be
polarized.
• When a stimulus is sent down the axon, positive ions move into the axon
making the inside more positive than the outside. This is known as an action
potential.
• At this point the axon membrane is said to be depolarized, but repolarizes
again quickly (milliseconds).
• The ions that move across the neuron membrane are K+, Ca2+, Na+ and
Cl-.
• A series of pumps and channels facilitates the movement of the ions across
the membrane.
• Nerves can not undergo another action potential until the resting potential
has been restored along the membrane. The time it takes to do this is
known as the refractory period.
Nerve impulse
 Synapse
• The space between neurons is what is known as
a synapse.
• Messages are transported across the synapse
by a chemical messenger called acetylcholine.
• The chemical causes depolarization and initiates
an action potential there. This allows an impulse
to be transmitted.
• Once the next neuron has been stimulated by
the impulse, an an enzyme called
acetylcholinesterase is released to break down
the acetylcholine and allows the neuron to
repolarize.
Reflex Arc
• An involuntary response to a stimulus.
• There is no brain co-ordination involved with this type
of nerve pathway. Touching a hot stove and retracting
your hand shows how a reflex arc works:
• Nerve receptors in your hand touch the hot stove.
Sensory neurons carry the message to your spinal
cord.
• Interneurons in your spinal cord direct the message to
the motor neurons which in turn send the message to
the effectors in your hand which cause your hand to pull
away.
• Moments later your brain finally receives the message
and you now first realize why you pulled your hand away
- OUCH!
The Reproductive
System
 Male Reproductive System
• Male Reproductive System produce
sperm all throughout life
• sperm cells are produced in the testicles
which are located outside of the body in a
protective sac called a scrotum
• inside each testis, there are seminiferous
tubules which hold spermatogonia. By meiosis
the spermatogonia divide into spermatocytes
which eventually differentiate into sperm cells.
The sperm cells are released from the testis
where they mature in the epididymis.
• A tube called the vas deferens carries the
sperm from the testes to the urethra.
• Fluid (semen) is secreted by the three glands
along the vas deferens and the urethra. These
glands are the seminal vesicle, prostrate
gland and the Cowper's
(bulbuorethral) gland.
 Hormone Control
Testosterone
• produced in the testes
• stimulates sperm production
• influences development of male sexual
characteristics
• promotes development of facial and body
hair, growth of the larynx and body oils
 Structure of the sperm
• Acrosome - in the head of a sperm, has
digestive enzymes which dissolve the
outer coating surrounding the egg.
• - allows the sperm to penetrate the egg.
 Female Reproductive System
• produce eggs until menopause (only about 400 eggs
mature in a women's lifetime)
• the oviduct or Fallopian tube is found next to each
ovary
• an ovum/egg from the ovary enters into the
oviduct/Fallopian tube through the open ends called the
fimbria
• fertilization of the ovum occurs in the oviduct/Fallopian
tube. If the ovum is fertilized it will implant itself to the
wall of the uterus.
• The inner lining of the uterus is the endometrium. It
provides nourishment for a developing embryo.
• If fertilization doesn't occur, the endometrium is shed is a
process called menstruation.
• The uterus leads the
vagina/birth canal
• the cervix separates the
vagina from the uterus.
 Menstrual Cycle
• each ovary contains about 400 000
follicles at puberty. Approximately 1 OOO
follicles develop during each reproductive
cycle but only a single follicle matures into
an ovum which is released from the ovary
in to the oviduct/Fallopian tube. This
process is called ovulation.
Menstrual Cycle
• The other follicles remain in the ovary and are
transformed into the corpus luteum which secretes
hormones needed for pregnancy; however, if
pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum
disintegrates.
• Follicle development is controlled by the pituitary
gland the menstrual cycle is divided into four parts:
1. Flow phase
2. Follicular phase
3. Ovulatory phase
4. Luteal phase
• What's happening in the • The hormones involved
body
• Flow Phase (Days 1 - 5)
• - marks the beginning of • - low levels of hormones
the cycle cause blood vessels to
• menstruation (shedding rupture in the uterus =
of the endometrium) menstruation
• Follicular Phase The hormones involved
– (Days 6 - 13) pituitary releases hormone
• - 400 follicles develop. called FSH (Follicle
One matures into the egg Stimulating Hormone)
• - the now developing
follicles produce estrogen
which acts as a
"negative feedback" to
cause the pituitary to stop
producing FSH
• - the estrogen promotes
thickening of the
endometrium
• Ovulatory Phase (Day
14)
• - egg is released from the The hormones involved
ovary into the Fallopian - pituitary releases LH
tube (Luteinizing Hormone)
which stimulates
ovulation
 The hormones involved
• pituitary continues to release
LH which promotes the
development of the corpus
luteum.
• progesterone continues to
• Luteal Phase promote the thickening of the
endometrium.
– (Day 15 - 28) • note: some estrogen is also
produced to help promote the
thickening of the endometrium.
• - remaining follicles • if pregnancy doesn't occur
hormone production ceases
develop into the and the low levels cause
corpus luteum. menstruation.
• if pregnancy does occur the
• - phase prepares zygote which is now
embedded in the uterus wall
uterus for receiving stimulates the corpus luteum
the fertilized egg. to continue producing
progesterone and estrogen.
This inhibits pregnancy by
stopping the pituitary from
producing FSH so that no new
eggs mature.
 Implantation and Pregnancy

• the egg is fertilized in the fallopian tube. It is now

called a zygote.
• the zygote divides as it travels to the uterus
where it attaches to the wall of the uterus which
has been thickened with the endometrium. It is
now called a blastocyst.
• the developing blastocyst forms a hormone
called HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin
Hormone). This hormone maintains the corpus
luteum which produces progesterone and
estrogen which maintain the endometrium.
• HCG levels are detected in the urine
• the embryo develops in an outer membrane
called the chorion and within that there is an
inner membrane called the amniotic sac. This
sac is filled with amnion that insulates and
protects the embryo.
• the placenta supplies nutrients and removes
wastes for the embryo. the umbilical cord
connects the fetus to the placenta.
• It takes approximately 266 days for birth. The
amniotic membrane bursts (water breaks) the
cervix dilates and uterine contractions move
the baby through the birth canal.
• Relaxin - hormone produced by the placenta
prior to labor, which causes the ligaments
holding the pelvis together to loosen. Thus, the
hips are wider for the baby to exit through
• Oxytocin - hormone produced by the pituitary
gland which causes uterine contractions
• Prolactin - hormone produced by the pituitary
gland that aids in the development of milk in the
breasts.