The purpose of my talk today is

To equip you with background knowledge and

expertise needed to conduct a successful
vibration test.
Objective
Dr. S.P. Singh
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT, Hauz Khas New Delhi-110016
Fundamentals of Vibrations

Planning and Conducting a Vibration Test

Interpreting the Vibration Test Results

FUNDAMENTALS OF
VIBRATION
Harmonic wave
Single Degree of Freedom System
Damped System

et
Vibration
Oscillatory motion of a mechanical component
due to interplay of kinetic and potential
energies.
Harmonic Wave
x(t) = X sin (et)

x(t)
X
Harmonic wave
x = X sin e t
x
o
= e X cos e t
x
oo
= - e
2
X sin e t
Condition for Harmonic Motion
x
oo
= - e
2
x





0
motion of Equation
force spring
force inertial
..
..
..
= +
=

x k x m
kx x m
kx
x m
m
x
K
A simple vibration System
Substituting x = X sin e t
we get

m
k
= e
e is the natural frequency in radians/s
cyclic frequency in Hz f = e / (2*t)
Time Period T = 1/f = 2 * t / e
Tacoma Narrows Bridge
Response to a Harmonic Excitation
2
; ;
) ( cos ) (
) ( cos ) (
e
| e
e
m k
F
X
where
t X t x
t F t f kx mx

=
=
= = +
X
e
Damper
0
f


. ..
..
.
= + +
= =
= =
= =
kx x c x m
motion of Equation
kx orce spring F
x m f orce inetia F
x c f orce damping F
k
m
d
m
x
K
C
Damping Ratio
km t coef f icien damping critical c
t coef f icien damping c where
c c ratio damping
c
c
2

/
=

= = ,
At (c>c
c
) critical damping, system does not oscillate
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Critical Damping
Over Damping
Less than Critical Damping
Time
Response of damped system to a Harmonic
Excitation
) ( ) (
) ( cos ) (
) ( cos ) (
2 2 2
. ; ;
e e
| e
e
c m k
F
X
where
t X t x
t F t f x c kx mx
+
=
=
= = + +
X
e
Response to a Harmonic Excitation
2 2 2
) / 2 ( ) ) / ( 1 (
1
/
n n
k F
X
e ,e e e +
=
F force constant a to due
system the of deflection static / k F
Relationship between frequency and damping ratio

Damped natural frequency =

Resonance frequency =

2
1 , e e =
n d
2
2 1 , e e =
n r
Damped Natural Frequency


Multiple Degree of Freedom Systems
Continuous systems-systems having distributed
mass and elasticity

infinite number of degrees of freedom
Equation of Motion for a Multi-Degree of
Freedom System
Matrix eigen- value problem:

0
..
= + Kx x M
Where M and K are Mass and
Stiffness matrices
Solution Methods for continuous systems
Classical method
-partial differential equations
for defined shapes
Rayleigh-Ritz method
- approximate solution based
on conservation of energy
Matrix method
-Finite element method
the continuous system is idealized
finite number of mass points
by springs at NODES
has maximum of six of freedom










Sample Structure on which analysis is carried out for
layer damping treatment
Normal mode of Structure
Mode 2
Vibration Testing : Planning and Conduct
Vibration Sensors
Vibration Exciters
Fixture Design
Sine Test
Sine Sweep Test
Random Vibration Test
Vibration Measurement
Unit of Vibration
Displacement (amplitude=X) mm
Mostly peak-peak
Velocity V = 2*t*f*X
Amplitude (V) mm/sec or m/s
Acceleration A = 4* t
2
*f
2
*X
Measured as peak value m/s
2
or g
(=9.81m/s
2
)
Vibration Sensors
Accelerometer
Velocity Probe
Laser Doppler Vibrometer
Other Transducers such as Strain Guage,
LVDT etc.


Accelerometers

Measure Acceleration

Good for Medium High
Frequency

Velocity, Displacement
obtained by integration

Low Mass, to be attached to
structure
Velocity Probes
Comparatively Heavy
Good Velocity Response in Medium
frequency range (20-100 Hz)
Common in Power Plant monitoring
Relatively Cheaper electronics and hence
lower overall cost
Frequency(Hz)
10 100 1000
Sensitivity (m
V/m
m
/sec)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Laser Doppler Vibrometer
Non-contact Measurement
Very Good Frequency response up-to 100
MHz (only limited by electronics )
Costly
Currently becoming popular for Automated
Measurements and Scanning
X(t)
Laser Beam
Signal
conditi
oner
Power
Supply
Doppler Effect
Vibration Exciter- Various Types
Mechanical Exciter
Electro-dynamic
Electro-Hydraulic
Non-Contact Type (Electro-Magnetic)

Electrodynamic exciter is the most popular
and versatile
Mechanical Exciter- Inertia Excitation
Mechanical Exciter- Spring Excitation
Electrodynamic Exciter-
Important Specifications
Frequency Range
Dynamic Force Rating
Maximum Pay load
Natural Frequency
Moving Mass
Crossovers on the excitation range
D-V crossover (1.2/0.025)
V-A crossover (70*9.81/1.2)
Crossovers are specified many times even in the test specifications
D
V
A
A TYPICAL TEST SETUP FOR ESTIMATION OF
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Exciter
Fixture with
VEM sample
Charge Amplifiers
Filters
Oscillator
TOP VIEW OF FIXTURE
SHOWING VEM SPECIMEN
USE OF IMPEDANCE
HEAD
Free Vibration Test
Forced Vibration Test
Structural Mass vs Exciter Moving mass
Deciding the frequency range
Vibration Levels
Resonance Testing
Locating the resonance
Random Vibration Testing

Vibration Tests
computer
Slip table
exciter
Controller
Power
Amplifier
Logarithmic sweep

- The logarithmic sweep is better in the sense lower
frequencies are adequately covered. In case more accuracy
is required at higher frequency ranges a, decreasing rate
sloping or an increasing-decreasing rate may also be chosen

- The logarithmic sweep avoids over testing
at high frequencies
2 Oct/min e.g. 5-10 Hz-60 sec
10-20 Hz-60 sec
20-40 Hz-60 sec
40-80 Hz-60 sec

Tacoma Narrows Bridge
Normal mode of Structure
Mode 2
Interpreting the Test Results

Finding Natural Frequencies
Finding Damping
Locating the Resonance
Importance of Modes
Meaning and Interpretation of FFT
FFT Analyzers
FRF Plotting
Free Vibration Decay

X
0
/X
1
= X
1
/X
2 =
X
2
/X
3
= e

-2t

= 1/2t * log (X
0
/X
1 )
Identifying Multiple Vibration Sources
Frequency Response Function
FRF is a transfer function between the
response of structure measured at
some point I and force applied at some
point J

o
ij
= FFT of (x(t) at point I) / FFT of f(t) at
point J
FRF gives accurate picture of
resonances of the structure
Frequency Response Function
Frequency response function when found
at different point can be combined to get
the different mode shapes of the structure
and their corresponding modal properties
This very important procedure in vibration
testing is called MODAL TESTING
Use Modal Exciter
Cross stiffness to be
very low for
determining the FRF
Moving mass should
be minimum
fs=fe - M x
oo
Use a stringer. Thin
rod which is much
less stiff in cross
direction
structure
Some Test Cases
A TYPICAL TEST SETUP FOR ESTIMATION OF
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Exciter
Fixture with
VEM sample
Charge Amplifiers
Filters
Oscillator
Virtual Instrumentation and
Vibration Measurement
The goal of this lecture is to introduce
virtual instrumentation and expose you
to the power and flexibility of using it in
Vibration Measurement
Historical Perspective
Introduction to Virtual Instrumentation
Capabilities and functionalities
Case studies
Rotordynamic DAQ system using VIs
COMPUTERS IN INTRUMENTATION


Early days: Process monitoring and control limited to large
plants
Computer Hardware: Computing power, Bus-based
computers
Advancements in Hardware:

Mainframes Miniframes Personal Computer (desktop)
Bus based computer architecture
PC and AT buses like VESA & EISA
In 1993, Intel came up with a standard called
Peripheral Components Interconnect (PCI)
most commonly used even today
PCs came with Interrupt (IRQ) and Direct Memory Access (DMA)
structure permitting fast data transfers with peripherals

Development of Buses allowed easy interfacing

Buses are shared data highways on which data, commands,
etc., move and are shared by various components, making it
possible to add additional modules in a simple and systematic
manner.
Buses: Internal to computer (UNIBUS, PCI, ISA,etc.)
or External (e.g., GPIB, USB, Firewire, etc).

Earlier each interface problem was unique; i.e., to connect 12
instruments to 5 different computers required 12x5=60 unique
ways.

SOFTWARE
Earliest operating systems such as VAX-VMS dominated the control
applications
UNIX and its variants HPUX control applications
Microsoft:
DOS: Integration of device drivers in OS big
Advantage
Windows: S/W for additional user hardware
integrated into the overall system
through drivers developed for specific devices.
GUI based OS: 1990.
INTERFACES

Different types of devices require interfaces of different
capabilities
Led to development of various buses and interfaces for
different purposes coexisting in the same system
In computer interfacing Internal computer buses and
interface standard play a role
Internal bus: used to integrate add-on h/w into PC and act as
platform for standardized h/w.

3 Buses are extended to cater to instrumentation
VME extended to VXI (VEM extension for instrumentation)
PCI extended to PXI (PCI extension for instrumentation)
SCSI bus for peripherals SCXI standard
INTERFACE STANDARDS
To connect external devices to the computer
Serial Connection: Sequential transfer of data
Recommend Standard No. 232 (RS232C),
Universal Serial Bus (USB), Firewire, etc.
GPIB Connection: separate line for each bit,
transfer is fast
CRUX OF THE VI
Progressively moving the intelligence of the instrument
into software
H/w reduced to
actual sensors (thermocouples, accelerometers, etc.) and
actuators (switches, motors, valves, etc)

All signal handling, analysis and control done through s/w
LabView: G programming language

Program Window Panel Window

Available Facilities : Control Elements
Function Elements
Using G Program, one can
Build the panel, Controls and Displays
Assign signal manipulation and signal analysis tasks
Wire the control functions and the displays
Make connectivity with the A/D card I/O channels
Execute the commands in Real Time on the signal
A VIRTUAL INSTRUMENT PERFORMS THE SAME JOB
AS REAL INSTRUMENT

Virtual Data Logger Virtual Signal Generator
Virtual CRO Virtual Multimeter
Virtual FFT Analyser Virtual Frequency Meter

But, additionally, it gives more
Flexibility User defined Controls
Removes Ambiguities Low Cost
Actual numerical values are available anytime for import/export
Add on Software for control and specific requirements
Avoid redundancy Reusability Reconfigurability
SOME TYPICAL TASKS THAT CAN BE PERFORMED ON THE
SIGNAL
Measurement:
AC, DC Amplitude and frequency estimate
Amplitude and phase spectrum
Harmonic Analyser
Transfer Function
Signal Generation:
Arbitrary Wave
Amplitude and Phase Spectrum
White Noise
Impulse, Ramp and chirp pattern