Physics SF 017 Part III : Properties of Matter

Chapter 11 : The States of Matter

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Physics Dept. College Matriculation Johor

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Chapter Outline : 11.1

11.2

Molecular Bonding
Solids, Liquids and Gases

11.3
11.4

Crystalline solid
Amorphous Solids and Polymers

11.5
11.6

Intermolecular Forces
Potential Energy between Molecules
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At the end of this topic, student should be able to :

1. Explain molecular ionic, covalent, Van der Waals and hydrogen bonds.

2. Distinguish between Solids, Liquids and Gases based on arrangements of atoms and simple model of Kinetic Theory. 3. Describe the properties of Crystalline Solid by referring to ionic crystals, covalent crystals and metallic crystals
4. Describe the properties of Amorphous and Polymers
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5.

Sketch and explain qualitatively the Force, F versus separation distance between atom, r graph. Sketch and explain the Potential Energy, U versus r graph Explain and use the formula F = -dU/dr to understand the behaviors of the F and U versus r

6.

7.

8.

Use U versus r graph to explain qualitatively the thermal expansion of solids.

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Physics Dept. College Matriculation Johor

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11.1 Molecular Bonding -- Matter is normally classified as being in one of 3 states : Solid Liquid Gaseous

-- All matter consists of some distribution of atoms or molecule -- The atoms in a solid are held by forces that are mainly electrical, at specific positions with respect to one another and vibrate about these equilibrium positions.
-- there are some simplified models / bonding mechanisms in

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Physics Dept. College Matriculation Johor

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-- 4 simplified bonding mechanisms in molecules : Ionic Bonding Covalent Bonding Van der Waals Bonding Hydrogen Bonding

(a) Ionic Bonding

-- occurs between charged particles. ( between metal atoms and non-metal atoms.) -- Metals usually have 1,2, @ 3 electrons in their outermost shell. -- Non-metals have 5,6 @ 7 electrons in their outer shell. Atoms with outer shells that are only partly 1 Nov 2002 filled are unstable. Physics Dept. College Matriculation Johor

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-- To become stable: the metal atom get rid of the electrons in its outer shell lost e- --forms a positively-charged ion. the non-metal atom receive electrons from the metal atom -- forms negatively-charged ion.
-- attractive between +ve & -ve charges( opposite charges ) keeps the ions together.
Example 1:

Na
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Cl

Na+

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Physics Dept. College Matriculation Johor

(b) Covalent Bonding -- occurs between two ( or more ) non-metal atoms. -- Non-metals have 4 or more electrons in their outer shells ( except Boron ). -- energy to remove all the e- >> energy can gained by making new bonds.

-- to overcome : the atoms involved donate 1 electron each to share pair of electron. ---- allow each atom to have a full outer shell for part of the time.

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Physics Dept. College Matriculation Johor

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-- the bonds/ forces between molecules are usually weak.

Example 2:

4 H

C
H

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Physics Dept. College Matriculation Johor

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(c) Van der Waals Bonding -- For 2 molecules that are some distance apart or for atoms that do not form ionic @ covalent bonds, they are attracted to each other by van der Waals forces. -- relatively weak bonding between neighboring molecules either due to momentary dipoles or due to electrostatic interactions among polar molecules.

-- 3 types of van der Waals forces : (a) Dipole-dipole force (b) Dipole-induced force (c) Dispersion force.

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Physics Dept. College Matriculation Johor

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(d) Hydrogen Bonding

-- occurs between hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine atoms is attracted to an unshared electron pair of a similar highly electronegative atoms in the same or adjacent molecules.

-- relatively weak compared with other chemical bonds, hydrogen bonding is the mechanism responsible for the linking of biological molecules 1 Nov 2002 Physics Dept. College Matriculation Johor and polymers.

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11.2 Solids, Liquids and Gases Solids -- molecules are held rigidly in position with virtually no freedom of motion.

-- vibrate about fixed positions

-- have a definite volume and shape

-- virtually incompressible -- because of this tight pack of particles. -- the density of the solid form is higher
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Liquids

-- molecules are close together but are not held so rigidly in position can slide past one another freely .

-- has a definite volume ( molecules in a liquid do not break away from the attractive forces ) but assumes the shape of its container. -- can flow & can be poured.
-- only slightly compressible. -- more denser that gases under normal conditions.
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Gases -- The particles in gases are not neatly arranged, -- don`t even touch each other most of the time. lots of space in between particles. -- very free motion randomly.

-- lack of strong forces between molecules allows a gas to expand to fill the volume of its container. -- very compressible.
-- have a very low densities under normal conditions ( large amount of empty space )
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11.3 Crystalline solid Solids can be divided into 2 categories : Crystalline Amorphous Crystalline solid (ex: ice) , possesses rigid and longrange order; its atoms, molecules, or ions occupy specific positions. Net attractive intermolecular forces are at their max. The forces responsible for the stability of a crystal can be ionic forces, covalent bonds, van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonds or a combination of these forces.
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Unit cell the basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid.

Any of the unit cells, when repeated in space in all 3 dimensions, forms the lattice structure characteristic of a crystalline solid. Every crystalline solid can be described in terms of 1 of the 7 types of unit cells shown in Figure below.

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Physics Dept. College Matriculation Johor

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We can classify any crystal as one of 4 types : ionic, covalent, molecular or metallic. (a) Ionic Crystals Lattic e:

Bond : Electric attraction

example : Sodium chloride, NaCl

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Physics Dept. College Matriculation Johor

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Propertie s: 1. Hard & stable 2. High melting points indication of the strong cohesive forces holding the ions together. 3. Do not conduct electricity because the ions are fixed in position. 4. In molten state or dissolved in water, the ions are free to move liquid is electrically conducting. 5. May be soluble in polar liquids such as water ( H2O ). 6. Brittle

(b) Covalent Crystals

example : Diamond, C ; Graphite ; Quartz ( SiO2 ) Lattic Bond : Shared e: electrons

Properties : 1. Very Hard 2. High melting point 3. Insoluble in nearly all liquids 4. Semiconductors ( except diamond which is an insulator )
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(c) Metallic Crystals

example : All metallic elements ; such as Na, Mg, Fe, Cu Lattic Bond : electron e: gas

Properties :
1. Ductile 2. Metallic luster 3. High electrical and thermal conductivity. 4. Semiconductors ( except diamond which is an insulator ) 5. Usually very dense
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(d) Molecular Crystals example : Methane, CH4 ; sulfur dioxide, SO2 Lattic Bond : Van der Waals e: forces and/ or Hydrogen bonding Properties :
1. soft 2. Low melting and boiling points 3. Soluble in covalent liquids 4. Electrical insulators 5. More easily broken apart than ionic & covalent crystals. 6. Poor conductor of Heat.
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11.4 Amorphous Solids and Polymers Amorphous -- Lack a well-defined arrangement and long range molecular order. -- atom are arranged randomly. -- example : glass, plastic, wax, soot Properties : 1. Hard but brittle ( easily broken ) 2. Electricity & Heat insulator 3. Do not have specific melting point 4. Do not have long-range repetitive internal structures 5. Soften gradually when they are heated.

Polymers -- large molecules consisting of repeated chemical units ( `mers ` ) joined together usually in a line like beads on a string. -- ExAmpLeCH : Polypropylene CH CH CH
|
3 3 3 3

CH3 |

--CH2CHCH2CHCH2CHCH2CHCH2CH-- ..etc Propylene is the monomer for polypropylene CH3 CH3 | | -CH2CHCH2==CH Propylene Repeating unit in polypropylene CH3 | -(-CH2CH -)-n Polypropylene

2 types of polymers : (a)Natural organic Polymers Protein, Natural rubber ( latex ), wool (b)Synthetic Organic polymers Nylon, artificial rubber. Properties : 1. Good Insulator 2. Rubbery, stiff, can be quite brittle 3. Do not have specific melting point because do not have specific structural. 4. Soft but unyielding. 5. Only dissolved in organic liquids.

11.5 Intermolecular Forces The existence of 3 states or phases of matter is due to a struggle between inter atomic ( intermolecular ) forces and the motion which atoms ( molecules ) have because of their internal energy.
r0 ( equilibrium separation )

Repulsive Force Repulsive Force

r < r0

Attractive Force r > r0

Attractive Force

In addition to attractive inter atomic forces there must also be inter atomic repulsion, otherwise matter would collapse. When the solid is compressed they repel each other ; they attract when they are pulled father apart.
Repulsive Forces between 2 atoms F
repulsive

A rn

where r = inter nuclear separation distance A = parameter associated with the repulsive force n = small integer *F
repulsive

positive : in the r increasing direction

Attrative Forces between 2 atoms F

attractive

= ke

e2 r2

where k

= 8.99 x 109 N m2 C -2 = Madelung constant ; 1.7476 r = inter nuclear separation distance e = electron charge
e

*F

attractive

negative : in the r decreasing direction

Resultant Forces between 2 atoms F

resultant

=F

repulsive

+F

attractive

A r
n

ke

e2 r2

Graph Intermolecular force, F versus separation distance betwee

At r = r0 ( equilibrium separation ) -- the attractive and repulsive forces just balance. |F repulsive | = | F attractive | -- the resultant inter atomic force = zero

At r < r0
-- if the atoms come closer than equilibrium, their electron shells try to repel them thus creating a very short-range & strong repulsive force. |F
repulsive

|>|F

attractive

-- resultant force F

resultant

: positive ( > 0 )

At r > r0

-- at very large separation distances, the dominant forces are attractive. | F repulsive | < | F attractive | -- F
resultant

: negative ( < 0 )

-- F attractive : long-range force decrease slowly when r increase. at infinite distance, the force zero.

Relationship between Hooke`s Law and the F versus r Graph

The atoms are pulled apart very slightly; - displaced a tiny distance from its equilibrium position and the material lengthens. The intermolecular force curve is straight at and near equilibrium. -- means the force is proportional to the displacement from equilibrium. Bonds between atoms in solids are like tiny Hooke`s Law spring provided they are not extended too much. Whole structure is not stretched too much Hookes law is obeyed.

r0

-- x represent the tiny displacement from equilibrium position r0 , x = r 0 r -- graph F vs r straight line for atomic separation close to equilibrium. -- gradient value of the graph for this small portion, k constant.
F Graph gradient, k = r 0 F` r

F` = - k ( r ) obeying Hooke`s Law where k( unit : N/m ) : spring constant ( gradient of the graph near r0 )

11.6 Potential Energy between molecules. Potential Energy between 2 molecules

r
A r

repulsive

-- Suppose they move towards each other slightly so their separation decreases by r -- let the change of Potential Energy ( P.E.) = dU. -- the force holding them and moving them slightly have done work equal to dU

W = Force x Distance dW = - F dr -ve : The force F between the molecules due to their interaction is = and opposite to the force applied to move them. F =
dW dr

dU dr

dU = - F dr U = - F dr

Graph Potential Energy between molecules, U versus separation

When very far apart, their P.E. due to interaction = zero. When they are moved towards each other their P.E. falls because the attraction between them. The P.E. continues to fall until they reach the position where the overall force changes from attraction to repulsion. If they move closer still, the P.E. rises because work must done on the system to push them together against the repulsion forces.

The minimum of the P.E. curve occurs where the force changes from attraction to repulsion where the overall force is zero. at r0 -- P.E. minimum The force due to the interaction between the 2 molecules = - gradient of the P.E. curve.

dU dr

At r0, F=0, P.E. curve gradient = 0 At separation r > r0 , F <0; P.E. curve gradient > 0 At separation r < r0 , F >0; P.E. curve gradient < 0

Using graph U vs r to explain : Thermal Expansion

-- Solids expand when heated. -- The atoms vibrate more & more as more & more energy is supplied. -- The separation between any pair of adjacent atoms varies about the equilibrium value as they vibrate. -- At absolute zero ( T =0K) , the atoms do not vibrate so their separation is r0 -- At temperature T1, the atoms vibrate so that their separation varies from r1 to r1`. Because the P.E. curve is sharper at separation less than r0, r1 is closer to r0 than r1`. So average separation, midway between r1 and r1` is greater than r0 -- At increased temperature T2, the vibration increase so their separation varies from r2 to r2`. The shape of the P.E. curve is such that the average separation, midway between r2 and r2` is even greater. -- for whole network of atoms, an overall expansion takes place.

That `s all about Chapter 11 : The States of Matter