Spelling influences .

Reading skill Writing skill

Derivational relation

Emergent spelling
Lettername alphabetic

5 stages of spelling development Within word

Syllables & affixes

STAGE 1: EMERGENT SPELLING

In this stage children are able to string scribbles, letters, and letterlike forms together, but they do not associate the marks they make with any specific phonemes. This stage is typical of students 3- to 5-yearolds. The students learn these concepts: The distinction between drawing and writing How to make letters The direction of writing on a page Some letter-sound matches

STAGE 2: LETTER NAME-ALPHABETIC SPELLING

In this stage, children learn to represent phonemes in words with letters. At first, their spellings are quite abbreviated, but they learn to use consonant blends and digraphs and short-vowel patterns to spell many shortvowel words. Spellers are 5- to 7-year olds, and children learn these concepts by: The alphabetic principle Consonant sounds Short vowel sounds Consonant blends and digraphs

STAGE 3: WITHIN-WORD PATTERN SPELLING

Students learn long-vowel patterns and r-controlled vowels, but the may still confuse spelling patterns and spell words such as meet as mete,

They often reverse the order of letters, such as form to from.

These spellers are 7- to 9-years-old, and they learn these concepts by: Long-vowel spelling patterns

r-controlled vowels More-complex consonant patterns

Diphthongs and other less common vowel patterns

STAGE 4: SYLLABLES & AFFIXES SPELLING

In this stage, students apply what they have learned about onesyllable words to spell longer words, and they learn to break words into syllables.

They also learn to add inflectional endings such as es, -ed, ing, and to
differentiate between homophone, such as the word your youre.

These spellers are often 9- to 11-years-old, and they learn these concepts by:
Inflectional endings Rules for adding inflectional endings Syllabication Homophones

STAGE 5: DERIVATIONAL RELATIONS SPELLING

In this stage, students are able to explore the relationship between spelling and meaning and learn that words with related meanings are often related in spelling despite changes in sound such as wise wisdom. They also learn about Latin and Greek root words and derivational affixes such as pre-, -able, and tion. Spellers are 11- to 14-years-old, and these students learn these concepts by: Consonant alternations Vowel alternations Latin affixes and root words Greek affixes and root words

SPELLING ACTIVITIES
1) Anagram

SPELLING ACTIVITIES
2) Building as many words as possible from one long vowel.

SPELLING ACTIVITIES
3) Missing letters

SPELLING ACTIVITIES
4) Puzzles

SPELLING ACTIVITIES
5) Dictation

WHAT IS DICTATION?
Dictation is an activity to write down something that someone says or reads out as it is being said or immediately after it is said. Dictation often acts as a memorization exercise or a spelling-checking assessment in which teachers read the text, pupils dictate it and then the teachers read the text the third time for pupils to check through their work. (Raimes, 1983; Careless,1999)

CONT.
however, particularly the less capable pupils, either work under stress or give up in the boring and threatening lesson. They gradually develop a negative attitude towards dictation lessons that hinders their learning. Before conduct this dictation activity, teacher needs to consider first the level of proficiency of the students.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING TEXTS FOR DICTATION ARE:

length
It must not be too long because the concentration span of the students especially the younger ones is very short.

Level of difficulty
Type of text

The vocabulary and style must be appropriate for the level of students or they may not be able to make any sense of the text and thus become frustrated. To make the activity natural, the text should be a sample of something we normally dictate in real life, eg. Memorandum, business letter, instructions.

The text for dictation should, if possible, have a thematic relationship to something already read or discussed.

EXAMPLES OF DICTATION ACTIVITY

Jigsaw dictation Partial dictation

Pupils listened to a short text by the teacher. They wrote down chunks of the text in the form of phrases or short sentences. This helped pupils develop their skills in understanding and listening to the gist of the text.

Pupils worked in pairs. A text was divided in half. One read his/her half of the text for his/her partner to dictate. Two of them worked the whole text. This provided pupils with an opportunity to complete a reading, speaking and writing task.

Running dictation
Grammar dictation

Pupils worked in groups of five to six. One member was responsible for writing the text while other members took turns to read out the text sentence by sentence. This provided pupils with an opportunity to work co-operatively.

Pupils worked in groups of four or five. They listened to a short text read by the teacher at normal speed and jotted down some important words. Then they pooled their resources, discussed and worked together to compose the text as nearest to the original text as possible. This enabled pupils to work out a speaking and writing task collaboratively.

TEXT ORGANIZATION AND COHESION

TEXT ORGANIZATION IN WRITING. INTRODUCTION

Definition of Text Structure ; framework of a texts beginning, middle, and end. Different narrative and expository genres have different purposes and different audiences, and so they require different text structures. Beginnings and endings help link the text into a coherent whole.

BEGINNINGS: HOOKING YOUR READER

A good beginning can draw a readers interest into a piece of writing, while a boring beginning can discourage a reader from reading further. The beginning, also called the lead of the writing, which is to direct the reader to the purpose of the writing by introducing characters or setting (for narrative) or the topic, thesis, or argument (for expository writing). A good beginning also give readers expectations for the purpose, style, and mood of the piece. Good writers know how to hook their readers in the opening sentences and paragraphs by using techniques such as dialogue, flashback, description, inner thoughts, and jumping right into the action.

MIDDLE
The organization of the middle of a piece of writing depends on the genre.

WHATS IN THE MIDDLE ?

Sequence Cause and Effect

Description

Basic organization al structures

Compare and contrast

Problem and solution

SEQUENCE
Uses time, numerical, or spatial order as the organizing structure. Some narrative genres that use a chronological sequence structure are personal narrative genres (memoir, autobiographical incident, autobiography), imaginative story genres (fairytales, folktales, fantasy, science fiction), and realistic fiction genres. As early as kindergarten, children can be introduced to basic informational genres that are organized sequentially, including learning structures for writing instructions, experimental recounts and experimental procedures. Older students can learn to use timelines to organize biographies, oral histories, and recounts of current and historical events.

DESCRIPTION
Used to describe the characteristic features and events of a specific subject. E.g, (My Cat) or a general category (Cats). Descriptive reports may be arranged according to categories, moving from general categories of features to specific attributes. Informational alphabet books and riddle books can be used to introduce kindergarten children to the writing of descriptive reports through shared or interactive writing. Older children can learn to develop categories of related attributes to organize their reports by using webs, concept maps, and softwares.

CAUSE AND EFFECT

Used to show causal relationships between events. Cause and effect structures organize more sophisticated narratives as children become more skilful at showing the relationship between events. Young children also can begin to extend opinion essays by giving reasons to support their opinions using the word because. Signal words for cause and effect structures also include ifthen, as a result, and therefore.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

Used to explain how two or more objects, events, or positions in an argument are similar or different. Graphic organizers such as Venn diagrams, compare/contrast organizers, and data matrices can be used to compare features across different categories. Children can begin to use words such as same and different to compare things. Other words used to signal comparison and contrast organizational structures include alike, in contrast, similarities, differences, and on the other hand.

PROBLEM AND SOLUTION

Requires writers to state a problem and come up with a solution. Although problem/solution structures are typically found in informational writing and realistic fiction, it is also often uses a problem/solution structure that children can learn to identify.

ENDINGS
The type of ending an author chooses depends on his or her purpose. When the purpose is to entertain, endings may be happy or tragic, or a surprise ending may provide a twist. Endings can be circular, looping back to the beginning so readers end where they began, or they can leave the reader hanging, wishing for more. Endings can be deliberately ambiguous or ironic, designed to make the reader think, or they can explicitly state the moral of the story, telling the reader what to think. Strong endings for expository texts can summarize the highlights, restate the main points, or end with a final zinger statement to drive home the main point to the audience.

WHY TEACH TEXT STRUCTURE?

Help reader make better understanding of the information presented. Reader can observe hot the writer arrange the ideas and the structures used to interrelate ideas. Able to remember more of what they read, better able to recall of the information, to discriminate the main ideas and the extra information (elaboration) To be a better writer which is aware that different types of writings have different types of structures.

COHESION: THE GLUE THAT HOLDS THE STRUCTURE TOGETHER

If narrative and expository structures are the framework, cohesive elements such as transition words are the glue that holds these structural elements together. Transition words show the relationship between different sentences and ideas. Poor writers tend to loosely connect their sentences with and and then. Good writers use transition words that show causal and logical relationships between words, sentences and paragraphs, such as because and after.

TRANSITION WORDS
Spatial order
Words used in descriptive writing to signal spatial relationships. Such as above, below, beside, nearby, beyond, inside, and outside.

 Time order.
Words used in writing narratives, and instructions to signal chronological sequence. Such as before, after, first, next, then, when, finally, while, as, during, earlier, later, and meanwhile.

Numerical order.
Words used in expository writing to signal order of importance. Such as first, second, also, finally, in addition, equally important, and more or less importantly.

 Cause/effect order.
Words used in expository writing to signal causal relationships. Such as because, since, for, so, as a result, consequently, thus, and hence.

Comparison/contrast order.
Words used in expository writing to signal similarities and differences. Such as (for similarities) also, additionally, just as, as if, as though, like, and similarly; and (for differences) but, yet, only, although, whereas, in contrast, conversely, however, on the other hand, rather, instead, in spite of, and nevertheless.

 General/specific order.
Words used in descriptive reports and arguments to signal more specific elaboration on an idea. Such as for example, such as, like, namely, for instance, that is, in fact, in other words, and indeed.