02 Wave Prop

July, 2003 2003 by H.L.
Bertoni 1
I. Introduction to Wave
Propagation
Waves on transmission lines
Plane waves in one dimension
Reflection and transmission at junctions
Spatial variations for harmonic time
dependence
Impedance transformations in space
Effect of material conductivity
July, 2003 2003 by H.L. Bertoni 2
Waves on Transmission Lines
Equivalent circuits using distributed C and L
Characteristic wave solutions
Power flow
Examples of Transmission Lines
I(z,t) +
V(z,t) -
z
I(z,t) +
V(z,t) -
Dielectric
Conductors
Strip Line
Coaxial Line
Two-Wire Line
(Twisted Pair)
Properties of Transmission Lines (TLs)
Two wires having a uniform cross-section in one
(z) dimension
Electrical quantities consist of voltage V(z,t) and
current I(z,t) that are functions of distance z along
the line and time t
Lines are characterized by distributed capacitance
C and inductance L between the wires
C and L depend on the shape and size of the conductors
and the material between them
Capacitance of a Small Length of Line

The two wires ac t as a capacitor. Voltage applied to the wires
induces a c harge on the wires, whose time derivative is the current.
Since the total c harge,and henc e the current,is proportional to
the length l of the wires. Let the c onstant of proportionality be
C Farads/meter. Then
I(t) = Cl
dV(t)
dt
I(t) +
V(t) -
l
Open circuit
E
Inductance of a Small Length of Line

The wire acts as a one- turn coil. Current applied to the wires induces
a magnetic field throught the loop,whose time derivative generates the
voltage. The amount of magnetic flux (magnetic field area), and hence
the voltage, is proportional to the length l of the wires. Let the constant
of proportality be L Henrys/meter. Then
V(t) = Ll
dI(t)
dt
I(t) +
V(t) -
l
Short circuit B
C and L for an Air Filled Coaxial Line
a
b

C =
2tc
o
ln b a ( )
L =

o
2t
ln b a
( )
Permittivity of vacuum: c
o
~
10
9
36t
Farads/m
Permeability of vacuum:
o
4t 10
7
Henrys/m

Suppose that a = 0.5 mm and b = 2 mm. Then
C =
2tc
o
ln 4
= 40.1 pF/m and L =

o
ln 4
2t
= 0.277 H/m
Note that

1
LC
=
1
o
c
o
= 3 10
8
m/s and
L
C
=
ln b a ( )
2t

o
c
o
=
ln 4
2t
377 = 83.2 O
C and L for Parallel Plate Line
w
h
z

C =c
w
h
L =
h
w
Note that for air between the plates c = c
o
and =
o
so that
1
LC
=
1
o
c
o
= 3 10
8
m/s
L
C
=
h
w

o
c
o
=
h
w
377 O
Two-Port Equivalent Circuit of Length Az
I(z,t) +
V(z,t)
-
z z+Az z
LAz C Az
I(z,t) +
V(z,t)
-
+ I(z +Az,t)
V(z+Az,t)
-

Kirchhoff circ uit equations
V(z, t) = LAz
cI(z, t)
ct
+ V(z + Az, t) I(z, t) = CAz
cV(z + Az, t)
ct
+ I(z + Az, t)
or
V(z + Az, t) V(z, t)
Az
= L
cI(z, t)
ct

I(z + Az, t) I(z, t)
Az
= C
cV(z + Az, t)
ct
Transmission Line Equations

Taking the limit as Az 0 gives the Transmission Line Equations

cV(z, t)
cz
= L
cI(z, t)
ct

cI(z, t)
cz
= C
cV(z, t)
ct
These are c oupled, first order, partial differential equations whose solutions
are in terms of functions F(t - z/v) and G(t + z /v) that are determined by
the sources. The solutions for voltage and current are of the form
V(z, t) = F(t - z/v) +G(t + z /v) I(z, t) =
1
Z
F(t - z/v) - G(t + z/v) | |
Direct substitution into the TL Equations,and using the chain rule gives

1
v
F' (t - z/v) - G' (t + z /v)
| |
= L
1
Z
F' (t - z/v) - G' (t + z/v)
| |

1
vZ
F' (t - z/v) +G' (t + z /v)
| |
= C F' (t - z/v) +G' (t + z /v)
| |
where the prime (') indicates differentiation with respect to the total variable
inside the parentheses of F or G.
Conditions for Existence of TL Solution

For the two equations to be satisfied

1
v
=
L
Z
and
1
vZ
= C
Multiplying both sides of the two equations gives
1
v
2
Z
=
LC
Z
or
v =
1
LC
m/s
Dividing both sides of the two equations gives
vZ
v
=
L
ZC
or
Z =
L
C
O
v and Z are interpreted as the wave velocity and wave impedance.
F(t-z/v) Is a Wave Traveling in +z Direction

Assume that G(t + z /v) = 0
Then the voltage and current are
V(z, t) = F(t z /v) = F (1 v)(z vt)
| |
I(z, t) =
1
Z
F(t z /v) =
1
Z
F (1 v)(z vt)
| |
F(t z/v) represents a wave disturbance
traveling in the positive z direction with
veloc ity v.
Note that the c urrent in the conduc tor at
positive potential flows in the direction of
wave propagation.
V(z,0)=F[(-1/v)(z)]
V(z,t)=F[(-1/v)(z-vt)]
a z
-a
a+vt z
-a+vt
vt
t = 0
t > 0
G(t+z/v) Is a Wave Traveling in -z Direction

Assume that F(t z /v) = 0
Then the voltage and current are
V(z, t) = G(t + z/v) = G (1 v)(z + vt)
| |
I(z, t) =
1
Z
G(t + z /v) =
1
Z
G (1 v)(z + vt)
| |
G(t + z /v) represents a wave disturbanc e
traveling in the negative z direction with
veloc ity v.
Bec ause of the minus sign in I(z, t), the
physical current in the conductor at positive
potential flows in the direction of wave propagation.
V(z,0)=G[(1/v)(z)]
a 2a z
t = 0
V(z,t)=G[(1/v)(z+vt)]
2a-vt z
-vt
a-vt
t > 0
Example of Source Excitation

Excitation at one end of a semi - infinite length of transmission line.
Source has open circuit voltage V
S
(t) and internal resistance R
S
.
Radiation condition requires that exc ited waves travel away from source.
Terminal conditions at z = 0 :
V
S
(t) = R
S
I(0, t) +V(0, t)
= R
S
1
Z
F(t) + F(t)
or F(t) =
Z
Z + R
S
V
S
(t)
V
S
(t) = R
S
I(0, t) + V(0, t)
= R
S
1
Z
G(t) + G(t)
or G(t) =
Z
Z + R
S
V
S
(t)

z
V
S
(t)
+

0
R
S
I(0,t)
V(0,t)
+
V
S
(t)
I(0,t) R
S

V(0,t)
0 z

Receive Voltage Further Along Line
+
V
S
(t)

z
V
S
(t)
+

0 l
R
S

V(l,t)
Scope
R
S

V(-l,t)
-l 0 z

Scope

Voltage observed on a high impedance scope at a distance l from source.
V(l, t) = F(t l v) =
Z
Z + R
S
V
S
(t l v)
Delayed version of the source voltage
with the semi- infinite line acting as a
load resisor for the source.
V(l, t) = G t + (l v)
| |
=
Z
Z + R
S
V
S
(t l v)
Delayed version of the source voltage
with the semi- infinite line acting as a
load resisor for the source.
Power Carried by Waves
P(z,t)
I(z,t)
V(z,t)
z

Instantaneous power P(z, t) carried past plane
perpendicular to z.
P(z, t) = V(z, t)I(z, t)
= F(t z v) + G(t + z v)
| |
1
Z
F(t z v) G(t + z v)
| |
=
1
Z
F
2
(t z v) G
2
(t + z v)
| |
The two waves c arry power independently in the direction of wave
propagation
For each wave, a transmission line extending to z acts as a resistor
of value Z, even though the wires were assumed to have no resistance.
Summary of Solutions for TLs
Solutions for V and I consists of the sum of the
voltages and current of two waves propagating in
z directions
For either wave, the physical current flows in the
direction of propagation in the positive wire
Semi-infinite segment of TL appears at its
terminals as a resistance of value Z (even though
the wires are assumed to have no resistance)
The waves carry power independently in the
direction of wave propagation
Plane Waves in One Dimension
Electric and magnetic fields in terms of voltage
and current
Maxwells equations for 1-D propagation
Plane wave solutions
Power and polarization
Electric Field and Voltage for Parallel Plates

The electric field goes from the positive plate to the negative plate. If
w >> h, the electric field outside of the plates is very small. Between
the plates it is nearly constant over the cross - section with value
E
x
(z, t) =
1
h
V(z, t) Volts/m or V(z, t) = hE
x
(z, t).
Recall that C =c
w
h
.
w
h
z
y
E
x
(z,t) +
V(z,t)
-
x
Magnetic Field and Current for Parallel Plates
w
h
z
y
H
y
(z,t) or B
y
(z,t)
I(z,t)
x

The magnetic field links the currents in the plates. If w >> h, the magnetic
field outside of the plates is very small. Between the plates it is nearly
constant over the cross - section, as if in a solenoid, with value
H
y
(z, t)
1
B
y
(z, t) =
1

w
I(z, t)

(

=
1
w
I(z, t) Amps/m or I(z, t) = wH
y
(z, t).
Recall that L =
h
w
.
Maxwells Equations in 1-D

Inserting the foregoing expressions for V(z, t), C, I(z, t) and L into the
Transmission Line equations
c
cz
hE
x
(z, t)
| |
=
h
w

(

c
ct
wH
y
(z, t)
| |

c
cz
wH
y
(z, t)
| |
= c
w
h

(

c
ct
hE
x
(z, t)
| |

or

c
cz
E
x
(z, t) =
c
ct
H
y
(z, t)
c
cz
H
y
(z, t) = c
c
ct
E
x
(z, t)
These are the two Maxwell equations for linearly polarized wave propagating in
1- D. They are independent of ( h, w) and refer to the fields.
We may think of the plates as being taken to ( x, y) so they need not be
considered.
The field are in the form of a plane wave, which covers all spac e and is a simple
approximation for fields in a limited region of space, such as a laser beam.
Plane Waves: Solutions to Maxwell Equations

Maxwell' s equations are formally equivalent to the Transmission Line Equations
The solution is therefore in terms of two wave traveling in opposite direc tions
along z .
E
x
(z, t) = F(t z/v) + G(t + z /v) H
y
(z, t) =
1
q
F(t z/v) G(t + z /v)
| |
In air v =
1
o
c
o
c = 310
8
m/s is the speed of light and q =

o
c
o
= 377 O
is the wave impedance.
For waves in simple dielectric medium,c
o
is multiplied by the relative dielectric
constant c
r
.
For normal media c
r
>1, but it can be a function of frequenc y. As and example,
in water at radio frequencies (below 20 GHz) c
r
= 81, but at optical
frequencies c
r
=1.78.
Power Density Carried by Plane Waves

Total instantaneous power carried in parallel plate line
P(z, t) = V(z, t)I(z, t) = hE
x
(z, t) | | wH
y
(z, t)
| |
= hwE
x
(z, t)H
y
(z, t) watts
Power density c rossing any plane perpendicular
to z is
p(z, t) = P(z, t) hw = E
x
(z, t)H
y
(z, t) watt/m
2
=
1
q
F
2
(t z /v) G
2
(t + z/v)
| |
Direction of H
y
is such that turning a right hand screw in the
direction from E
x
to H
y
advances the screw in the direction of
propagation
E
Direction of
propagation
H
Polarization

The physical properties of a plane wave are independent of the
coordinate system.
For a plane wave traveing in one direc tion:
Electric field vector E must be perpedicular to the direc tion of
propagation.
Magnetic field vector H must be perpedicular to E and to the
direc tion of propagation.
The vector cross product p = E H watt/m
2
is in the direction
of propagation.
The ratio E H is the wave impedance q.
Examples of Polarization

Linear polaization of E along x Linear polaization of E along y
E = a
x
cos e(t z/v) | | E = a
y
sin e(t z /v) | |
H = a
y
1
q
cos e(t z/v)
| |
H = a
x
1
q
sin e(t z/v)
| |

Circular polarization
E = a
x
cos e(t z/v) | |+ a
y
sin e(t z/v) | |
H =
1
q
a
y
cos e(t z /v)
| |
a
x
sin e(t z /v)
| | { }
E
x z
H
y
x z
E
y H

a
x
= unit vector along x
a
y
= unit vector along y
Summary of Plane Waves
Plane waves are polarized with fields E and H
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of
propagation
Wave velocity is the speed of light in the medium
ExH watts/m
2
is the power density carried by a
plane wave
Reflection and Transmission at
Junctions
Junctions between different propagation media
Reflection and transmission coefficients for 1-D
propagation
Conservation of power, reciprocity
Multiple reflection/transmission

Junctions Between Two Regions
0 z
I(0
-
,t) I(0
+
,t)
TL 1 V(0
-
,t)
+
V(0
+
,t) TL 2
E
x
(0
-
,t) E
x
(0
+
,t)

H
y
(0
-
,t) H
y
(0
+
,t)
Medium 1 Medium 2
x
z

Terminal condtions for the
Junction of two TL' s
V(0
, t) =V(0
+
, t)
I(0
, t) = I(0
+
, t)
Boundary conditions at the
interface of two media
E
x
(0
, t) = E
x
(0
+
, t)
H
y
(0
, t) = H
y
(0
+
, t)
Plane wave propagation and
boundary c onditions are analogus
to junctioning of two TL' s
Reflection and Transmission
Incident wave
E
x
In
(z,t)=F
1
(t-z/v
1
)
H
y
In
(z,t) Transmitted wave

Reflected wave
v
1
and q
1
v
2
and q
2

x
z

A source creates an incident wave whose electric field is given by the known
function F
1
(t - z/v
1
). Using the boundary conditions we solve for the unknown
functions G
1
(t +z/v
1
) and F
2
(t - z/v
2
) for the electric fields of the reflected
and transmitted waves: E
x
(0
, t) = F
1
(t) +G
1
(t) = F
2
(t)= E
x
(0
+
, t)
H
y
(0
, t) =
1
q
1
F
1
(t)- G
1
(t) | |=
1
q
2
F
2
(t) = H
y
(0
+
, t)
Reflection and Transmission Coefficients

Solution of the boundary condition equations for G
1
(t) and F
2
(t) in terms of F
1
(t)
G
1
(t) = IF
1
(t) F
2
(t) = TF
1
(t)
The reflection coefficient I and transmission coefficient T are given by:
I =
q
2
q
1
q
2
+ q
1
T =1+ I =
2q
2
q
2
+ q
1
Examples:
I. Suppose medium 1 is air so that q
1
=q
o
c
o
= 377 and medium 2 has
relative dielectric c onstant c
r
= 4 so that q
2
=
o
c
r
c
o
= 0.5q. Then going
from air- to- dielectric I
ad
=
0.5q q
0.5q +q
=
1
3
and T
ad
=1
1
3
=
2
3

Reflection and Transmission, cont.

II. Now suppose the wave is inc ident from the dielectric onto air so that medium 1
is the dielectric q
1
= 0.5q ( ) and medium 2 is air q
2
= q ( ). Then going from
dielectic- to - air, I
da
=
q 0.5q
q + 0.5q
= +
1
3
and T
ad
=1+
1
3
=
4
3
Note that:
1. I
da
= I
ad

2. Since T is the ratio of fields, not power, it c an be greater than 1.
Reflected and Transmitted Power

Instantaneous power carried by the incident wave p
In
(z, t), the reflec ted wave
p
Re
(z, t), and the transmitted wave p
Tr
(z, t)
p
In
(z, t) = E
x
In
(z, t)H
y
In
(z, t) =
1
q
1
F
1
2
(t z v
1
)
p
Re
(z, t) = E
x
Re
(z, t)H
y
Re
(z, t) =
1
q
1
G
1
2
(t + z v
1
)
p
Tr
(z, t) = E
x
Tr
(z, t)H
y
Tr
(z, t) =
1
q
2
F
2
2
(t z v
1
)
Just on either side of the interface p
In
(0
, t) =
1
Z
1
F
1
2
(t) as well as
p
Re
(0
, t) =
1
q
1
G
1
2
(t) = I
2
1
q
1
F
1
2
(t) and p
Tr
(0
+
, t) =
1
q
2
F
2
2
(t) = T
2
1
q
2
F
1
2
(t)

Conservation of Power and Reciprocity

Conservation of power requires that p
In
(0
, t) p
Re
(0
, t) = p
Tr
(0
+
, t) so that

1
q
1
F
1
2
(t) I
2
1
q
1
F
1
2
(t) = T
2
1
q
2
F
1
2
(t) or 1 I
2
= T
2
q
1
q
2
This relation is easily shown to be satisfied from the expressions for I, T.
For waves going from medium 2 to medium 1, the reflection coefficient I
12
is
the negative of I
21
going from medium 1 to medium 2. Thus for either
case the ratios
p
Re
(0
, t)
p
In
(0
, t)
= I
2
and
p
Tr
(0
+
, t)
p
In
(0
, t)
=1I
2
are the same.
Therefore the same fraction of the incident power is reflected from and
transmitted through the interface for waves incident from either medium.
This result is an example of a very general wave property c alled reciprocity.
Termination of a Transmission Line
I(0
-
,t)
TL V(0
-
,t)
+
R
L

0 z

Terminal condtions
V(0, t) = R
L
I(0, t)
F(t) + G(t) =
R
L
Z
F(t) G(t) { }
Solving for G(t) in terms of F(t),
G(t) = IF(t) where the reflec tion
coeffic ient is I =
R
L
Z
R
L
+ Z
Special cases:
1. Matched termination, R
L
= Z and I = 0. Simulates a semi- infinite TL
2. Open circuit, R
L
and I =1. Total reflection with V(0, t) = 2F(t).
3. Short circuit, R
L
= 0 and I = 1. Total reflection with V(0, t) = 0.
Reflections at Multiple Interfaces
Incident wave
E
x
In
(z,t)=F
1
(t-z/v
1
)
Transmitted
H
y
In
(z,t) waves

Reflected waves
Multiple
internal
reflections
v
1
and q
1
v
2
and q
2
v
3
and q
3

x
0 l z

Multiple internal reflections occur within the finite thickness layer. These
internal waves generate multiple reflected waves in medium 1 and multiple
transmitted waves in medium 3.
Scattering Diagram for a Layer
1
I
12

T
12
I
23
T
21

T
12
(I
23
)
2
I
21
T
21
T
12
T
23

T
12
I
23
I
21
T
23

T
12
(I
23
)
2
(I
21
)
2

T
23
l z
2l/v
2

4l/v
2

t
T
12
T
12
I
23
T
12
I
23
I
21
T
12
(I
23
)
2
I
21
T
12
(I
23
)
2
(I
21
)
2

T
12
(I
23
)
3
(I
21
)
2

Space - time diagram indicates the relative amplitudes of the electric field of
the individual components of the multiply reflected waves. In adding fields,
account must be taken of the relative delay between the different components.
Summary of Reflection and Transmission
The planar interface between two media is analogous to the
junction of two transmission lines
At a single interface (junction) the equation T = 1 + I is a
statement of the continuity of electric field (voltage)
The ratio of reflected to incident power = I
2

Power is conserved so that the ratio of transmitted to incident
power = 1 - I
2

The reciprocity condition implies that reflected and transmitted
power are the same for incidence from either medium
At multiple interfaces, delayed multiple interactions complicate
the description of the reflected and transmitted fields for
arbitrary time dependence

Spatial Variations for Harmonic
Time Dependence
Traveling and standing wave representations of
the z dependence
Period average power
Impedance transformations to account for layered
materials
Frequency dependence of reflection from a layer
Harmonic Time Dependence at z = 0

Suppose that the voltage and current (or E
x
and H
y
fields) have harmonic time
dependence exp( jet) at z = 0. Then
V(0, t) =V(0)e
jet
= F(t) + G(t)
I(0, t) = I(0)e
jet
=
1
Z
F(t) G(t) | |
where V(0) and I(0) are the c omplex voltage and current at z = 0.
The functions F(t) and G(t) can satisfy these equations only if they too have
harmonic time dependence. Hence
F(t) = V
+
e
jet
and G(t) =V
e
jet

where V
+
=
1
2
V(0) + ZI(0)
| |
and V
=
1
2
V(0) ZI(0)
| |
are the complex
voltage amplitudes of the waves traveling in the z directions.
Traveling Wave Representation

At other locations z = 0
V(z, t) = F(t z v) + G(t + z v) = V
+
exp je(t z v)
| |
+V
exp je(t + z v)
| |
= V
+
e
jez v
+ V
e
+ jez v
{ }
e
jet
= V(z)e
jet
I(z, t) =
1
Z
F(t z v) G(t + z v) { }=
1
Z
V
+
exp je(t z v)
| |
V
exp je(t + z v)
| | { }
=
1
Z
V
+
e
jez v
V
e
+ j ez v
{ }
e
jet
= I(z)e
jet
Here V(z) is the phasor voltage and I(z) is the phasor c urrent,which give the
spatial variation for the implied time dependence exp( jet).
Define the wave number (propagation constant) k e v m
1
. Then
V(z) = V
+
e
jkz
+V
e
+ jkz
and I(z) =
1
Z
V
+
e
jkz
V
e
+ jkz
{ }
is the traveling wave representation of phasor voltage and current.
Standing Wave Representation

Substituting the expressions for V
+
and V
in terms of V(0) and I(0),

and rearranging terms gives the standing wave representation of the phasor
voltage and current:
V(z) =
1
2
V(0) e
jkz
+ e
+ jkz
| |
+
1
2
ZI(0) e
jkz
e
+ jkz
| |
= V(0)coskz jZI(0)sinkz
I(z) =
1
2
Z
V(0) e
jkz
e
+ jkz
| |
+
1
2
I(0) e
jkz
+ e
+ jkz
| |
= I(0)coskz j
1
Z
V(0)sinkz

The wavenumber is k = e v =2tf v = 2t where is the
wavelength = v f = 2t k
For plane waves in a dielectric medium k = e c

Variation of the Voltage Magnitude

For V
= 0 we have a pure traveling

wave V(z) = V
+
e
jkz
. The magnitude
V(z) = V
+
e
jkz
= V
+
is independent
of z.

|V
+
|

z

V(z)

For I(0)= 0 we have a pure standing
wave V(z) = V(0)coskz. Its magnitude
V(z) = V(0) coskz is periodic with
period t k = 2.
0 /2 z

V(z)

V(0)
Standing Wave Before a Conductor
I
SC

q, v short
0 z

Incident wave
E
x
In
(z)
H
y
In
(z)

E
x
Re
(z)
Reflected wave
x
Perfect
conductor
0 z

Plane wave incident on a perfectly
conduticng plate and the equivalent
circuit of a shorted TL
E
x
(0) = 0 and H
y
(0) = I
SC
The standing wave field is
Ex(z) =
1
2
qI
SC
e
jkz
e
+ jkz
| |
= jqI
SC
sinkz
Two waves of equal amplitude and
traveling in opposite directions create
a standing wave.
Standing Wave Before a Conductor, cont.

Plot of the magnitude of the standing wave field
E
x
(z) = qI
SC
sinkz

Since k =e v = 2tf v = 2t the nodes (zeros) of the field are
separated by a distance k Az = t or Az = t k = 2
qI
SC

- 3/4 /2 /4 0 z
Period Averaged Power

For harmonic time dependenc e on a TL,the time average over one period
of the instantaneous power is P(z) =
1
2
Re V(z)I
-
(z)
{ }
watts
Using the traveling wave representation
P(z) =
1
2
Re V
+
e
jkz
+ V
e
+ jkz
| |
1
Z
V
+
e
jkz
V
e
+ jkz
| |
-

`
)
=
1
2Z
V
+
2
V
2
{ }
Note that the average power is the algebraic sum of the power carried by
the incident and reflected waves, and it is independent of z.
For harmonic plane waves p(z) =
1
2
Re Ex(z)Hy
-
(z)
{ }
watts/m
2
In terms of traveling waves p(z) =
1
2q
E
x
In
2
E
x
Re
2
{ }
Reflection From a Load Impedance
V
+

V
-
Z
L

0 z
I(0)
V(0)
+
Z
L

0 z

For a complex load impedance Z
L
V(0) =V
+
+V
= Z
L
I(0) =
Z
L
Z
V
+
V
( )
Solving for V
in terms of V
+
gives
V
= IV
+
where the complex
reflection coefficient I is
I =
Z
L
Z
Z
L
+ Z
Reflected power
P
Re
=
1
2Z
V
2
=
1
2Z
IV
+
2
= I
2
P
In
Summary of Spatial Variation for Harmonic
Time Dependence
Field variation can be represented by two traveling waves
or two standing waves
The magnitude of the field for a pure traveling wave is
independent of z
The magnitude of the field for a pure standing wave is
periodic in z with period /2
The period average power is the algebraic sum of the
powers carried by the traveling waves
The period average power is independent of z no matter if
the wave is standing or traveling
The fraction of the incident power carried by a reflected
wave is ,I,
2

Impedance Transformations
in Space
Impedance variation in space
Using impedance for material layers
Frequency dependence of reflection from a brick
wall
Quarter wave matching layer
Defining Impedance Along a TL
I(0)
Z
IN
V(0)
+
Z
L

-l 0 z

At z = 0 the ratio of voltage to current
can have some value V(0) I(0) Z
L
Using the formulas for V(z) and I(z)
we c an compute their ratio at z = l.
Defining this ratio as Z
IN
(l) we have
Z
IN
(l)
V(l)
I(l)
=
V(0)cos(-kl) jZI(0)sin(kl)
I(0)cos(-kl) j
1
Z
V(0)sin(-kl)
Dividing numerator and denominator by I(0) and rearranging gives
Z
IN
(l) = Z
Z
L
cos(kl) + jZsin(kl)
Z cos(kl) + jZ
L
sin(kl)
= Z
Z
L
+ jZtan(kl)
Z + jZ
L
tan(kl)
Properties of the Impedance Transform

The impedance formula
Z
IN
(l) = Z
Z
L
cos(kl) + jZsin(kl)
Z cos(kl) + jZ
L
sin(kl)
= Z
Z
L
+ jZtan(kl)
Z + jZ
L
tan(kl)
shows that a length TL (or region of space) transforms an impedance
to a different value.
Some properties of the transformation :
1. For a matched load Z
L
= Z, the imput impedace is matched Z
IN
= Z
2. The impedance repeats Z
IN
(l) = Z
IN
(l + Al) for k Al = t or
Al = t k = 2
3. For quarter wave displacement l = 4, kl = t 2 and impedance
inverts Z
IN
( 4) = Z
2
Z
L

4. If Z
L
= 0, then Z
IN
(l) = jZtan(kl)
Using Transform for Layered Media
Incident wave
E
x
In
(z) E
x
TR
(z)
Transmitted
H
y
In
(z) wave

E
x
Re
(z)
Reflected wave

v
1
, q
1
v
2
, q
2
v
3
, q
3

x
0 l z
Z
IN
(l) Z
L
= q
3

Z= q
2

Circuit Solution for Reflection Coefficient

Medium 3 ac ts as a load on the layer to the left. A semi - infinite TL (medium)
at its terminals (accessible surface) acts as a resistor so that Z
L
=q
3
.
Impedanc e of the finite segment of TL is Z =q
2
. Wavenumber of this
segment is k
2
=e v
2
= e c
r2
c
o
o
= k
o
c
r2

where k
o
= e c
o
o
is the wavenumber of free space.
Input impedance at left surface of the layer is then
Z
IN
(l) =q
2
q
3
cos(k
2
l) + jq
2
sin(k
2
l)
q
2
cos(k
2
l) + jq
3
sin(k
2
l)
Reflection coeffic ient for the wave incident from medium 1 is
I =
Z
IN
(l) q
1
Z
IN
(l) +q
1
=
q
2
q
3
q
1
( )
cos(k
2
l) + j(q
2
2
q
1
q
3
)sin(k
2
l)
q
2
q
3
+ q
1
( )
cos(k
2
l) + j(q
2
2
+q
1
q
3
)sin(k
2
l)
Example 1: Reflection at a Brick Wall

Hy
I N

Ex
I N
w

Medium 1 and medium 3 are air
q
1
=q
3
=q
o

o
c
o
Medium 2 is brick with c
r2
~ 4
k
2
= 2k
o
and q
2
=

o
c
r2
c
o
=
1
2
q
o

Reflection coefficient for the wave incident from air is
I =
q
2
q
3
q
1
( )cos(k
2
w) + j(q
2
2
q
1
q
3
)sin(k
2
w)
q
2
q
3
+ q
1
( )
cos(k
2
w) + j(q
2
2
+ q
1
q
3
)sin(k
2
w)
=
j
1
4
q
o
2
q
o
2
( )
sin(2k
o
w)
2q
o
2
cos(2k
o
w) + j
1
4
q
o
2
+ q
o
2
( )
sin(2k
o
w)
=
j
3
4
sin(2k
o
w)
2cos(2k
o
w) + j
5
4
sin(2k
o
w)
Example 1: Reflection at a Brick Wall, cont.

Let the wall thickness be w = 30 cm so that 2k
o
w =
4tf
3 10
8
0.3 = 4tf
GHz
Then p
Re
p
in
= I
2
=
9sin
2
(4tf
GHz
)
64 cos
2
(4tf
GHz
) + 25 sin
2
(4tf
GHz
)

Since there is no conductivity in the brick wall, the fraction of the incident
power transmitted through the wall is 1 I
2

0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.0 f
GHz

,I,
2

9/25
Example 2: Quarter Wave Layers
Incident wave
E
x
In
(z) E
x
TR
(z)
Transmitted
H
y
In
(z) wave

E
x
Re
(z)
Reflected wave

v
1
, q
1
v
2
, q
2
v
3
, q
3

l=t/(2k
2
)=
2
/4
x
0 z

cos(k
2
l) = cos(k
2

2
4) = cos(t /2) = 0 and sin (k
2
l) = sin(t /2) =1
so that Z
IN
(
2
/4) =q
2
2
/q
3

Example 2: Quarter Wave Layers, cont.

For this value of Z
IN
we have I =
q
2
2
q
1
q
3
q
2
2
+q
1
q
3
If we choose the layer material such that q
2
2
=q
1
q
3
, then I = 0 and no
reflection takes place.
Suppose that medium 1 is air and medium 3 is glass with relative
dielectric c onstant c
g
For no reflec tion: q
2
2
=

o
c
r2
c
o
=q
1
q
3
=

o
c
o
o
c
g
c
o
or c
r2
= c
g
Note that the layer thickness is l =
2
/4 =
v
2
4 f
=
1
4 f c
r 2
c
o
o
=
v
o
4 f c
r 2
or l =

o
4 c
g
4
where
o
is the wavelength in air.
Summary of Impedance Transformation
The impedance repeats every half wavelength in
space, and is inverted every quarter wavelength
Impedances can be cascaded to find the impedance
seen by an incident wave
Reflection from a layer has periodic frequency
dependence with minima (or maxima) separated
by Af = v
2
/(2w)
Quarter wave layers can be used impedance
matching to eliminate reflections
Effect of Material Conductivity
Equivalent circuit for accounting for conductivity
Conductivity of some common dielectrics
Effect of conductivity on wave propagation
G, C, L for Parallel Plate Line
w
h
z

If the material between the plate conducts electricity, there will be a
conductance G mho/m in addition to the capacitance C farads/m
and induc tance L henry/m.
The conductivity of a material is give by the parameter o mho/m
Expressions for the circ uit quantities are :
G= o
w
h
C =c
w
h
L =
h
w
Equivalent Circuit for Harmonic Waves

In the limit as Az 0 the Kirchhoff circuit equations for the phasor
voltage and current give the TL equations for harmonic time dependence

dV(z)
dz
= jeLI(z)
dI(z)
dz
= G+ jeC
( )
V(z)
+
I(z) V(z)
-
z z+Az z
I(z) +
V(z)
+ I(z +Az)
V(z+Az)
jeLAz je C Az G
Harmonic Fields and Maxwells Equations

If w >> h, the fields between the plates are nearly constant over the cross - section,
so that the phasor circuit quantities are V(z) = hEx (z) and I(z) = wHy (z).
Substituting these exprsssions in the TL equations for harmonic time dependence,
along with the expressions for G, C, L gives Maxwell's equations

dEx(z)
dz
= jeH
y
(z)
dHy(z)
dz
= jec +o
( )
E
x
(z)
w
h
z
y
H
y
(z)
I(z)
x
+
V(z)
E
x
(z)
Maxwells Equations With Medium Loss

With minor manipulation, Maxwell's equations for 1- D propagation of
harmonic waves in a medium with conduction loss c an be written

dE
x
(z)
dz
= jeHy (z) and
dH
y
(z)
dz
= je

c Ex (z)
The complex equivalent dielec tric constant

c is given by

c = c
r
c
o
j o e = c
o
c
r
j o ec
o
( )
Let c"= o ec
o
. Then

c =c
o
c
r
jc"
( )
In other matierials atomic processes lead to a c omplex dielectric of the
form c
o
c
r
jc" ( ). These processes have a different frequency
dependence for c", but have the same effec t on a hamonic wave
Constants for Some Common Materials
When conductivity exists, use complex dielectric constant given by

c = c
o
(c
r
- jc") where c" = o/ec
o
and c
o
~ 10
-9
/36t

Material* c
r
o (mho/m) c" at 1 GHz
Lime stone wall 7.5 0.03 0.54
Dry marble 8.8 0.22
Brick wall 4 0.02 0.36
Cement 4 - 6 0.3
Concrete wall 6.5 0.08 1.2
Clear glass 4 - 6 0.005 - 0.1
Metalized glass 5.0 2.5 45
Lake water 81 0.013 0.23
Sea Water 81 3.3 59
Dry soil 2.5 -- --
Earth 7 - 30 0.001 - 0.03 0.02 - 0.54

* Common materials are not well defined mixtures and often contain water.
Incorporating Material Loss Into Waves

Using the equivalent complex dielectric c onstant,Maxwell's equations
have the same form as when no loss (conductivity) is present.
The solutions therefore have the same mathematic al form with c
replaced by

c .
For example, the traveling wave solutions in a material are
E
x
(z) = V
+
e
jkz
+V
e
+ jkz
and H
y
(z) =
1
q
V
+
e
jkz
V
e
+ jkz
{ }
Here k =e

c =e c
o
c
r
jc"
( )
and q =

c
=

c
o
c
r
jc"
( )

are c omplex quantities.
Wave Number and Impedance

The complex wavenumber k will have real and imaginary parts
k | jo =e c
o
c
r
jc"
( )
If c" is less than about c
r
10, we may use the approximations
| ~ e c
o
c
r
and o ~e c
o
c
r

c"
2c
r
Similarly, for c" small, q =

c
o
c
r
jc" ( )
~

c
o
c
r
1+ j
c"
2c
r
|
\

|
.
|
Effect of Loss on Traveling Waves

For a wave traveling in the positive z direction
Ex(z) = V
+
e
jkz
= V
+
exp j(| jo)z
| |
= V
+
exp(- j|z)exp(oz)
The presence of loss (conductivity) results in a finite value of the
attenuation constant o. The attenuation (decay) length is 1 o.
The magnitude of the field depends on z as given by
Ex (z) = V
+
exp(oz)
,V
+
,

,V
+
, /e
1/o z
Attenuation in dB

For a traveling wave, the attenuation in units of dec i - Bells is found from
Attn= 20log
10
Ex (z)
E
x
(0)

`
)
= 20log
10
V
+
exp(oz)
V
+

`
)
= 20ozlog
10
e { }= 8.67oz
Thus the attenuation rate of the wave in a medium is 8.67o dB/m
Effect of Loss on Traveling Waves, cont.

The instantaneous field of the wave has both sinusoidal variation over a
wavelength = 2t | and the decay over the attenuation length 1 o.
For real amplitude V
+
, the spatial variation is given by
ReEx(z)e
jet
{ }
=V
+
Re exp j(et |z) | |exp(oz) { }
or
V
+
cos(et - |z)exp(oz)
1/o
=2t/|

V
+

V
+
/e

z
Loss Damps Out Reflection in Media
Traveling wave
amplitude
z
Reflecting
boundary
Incident wave
Reflected wave

Ex
IN
(z) = V
+
exp( oz) Ex
Re
(z) = IV
+
exp(+oz)
Effect of Damping on the |I| for a Wall
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.0 f
GHz

,I,
2

9/25
1/9

With absorption in the brick wall,the interference minima are
reduced and the reflection coefficient approaches that of the
first air- brick interface or I =
q
B
q
o
q
B
+ q
o
= 1 3
The fraction of the incident power transmitted through the
wall is = 1 I
2

Summary of Material Loss
Conductivity is represented in Maxwells equations
by a complex equivalent dielectric constant
The wavenumber k = | jo and wave impedance
q then have imaginary parts
The attenuation length = 1/o
Loss in a medium damps out reflections within a
medium

02 Wave Prop

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in terms of V(0) and I(0),

= 0 we have a pure traveling

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