“PERFORMANCE TESTING OF

SOLAR THERMAL DEVICES”

by

Prof. S. C. Mullick

Centre for Energy Studies,

Indian Institute of Technology Delhi,
New-Delhi-110016, India
 INTRODUCTION
 Solar energy – one of the most promising renewable energy source

 For thermal applications – Solar collectors

 Components of a flat plate collector -

Glass cover

Absorber plate
Side
Insulation
Bottom
insulation

Tubes
Optical Performance Related Issues of a
Solar Collector

Incident Solar Energy Reflection from Glazing

Absorption in Glazing
glazing Thickness

Reflection
Transmitted Energy
from
Absorber

Absorber Plate
 Energy Absorbed
Optical Efficiency =
Incident Solar (Radiation) Energy

Energy Absorbed = Incident Solar Radiation

Optical Losses
Thermal Efficiency = Useful Energy Collected
Incident Solar Energy

Useful Energy Collected = Energy Absorbed

Thermal Losses

. " 
Q u  0 I t  U L (Tp  Ta )

U L  Ut  Ub  U s
F 
'
Heat Exchange Efficiency Factor
&
Qu 
"
Rate of Heat Loss Per Unit Area
o  Optical Efficiency

It  Total Insolation

UL  Overall Heat Loss Factor

Tp  Average Plate Temperature

Ta  Ambient Temperature

UT  Top Heat Loss Factor

Ub  Bottom Heat Loss Factor

Us  Side Heat Loss Factor
 '
F
o Collector Parameters
UL

It Climatic Variables
Ta

Tp Operating Variable
Upward Heat Losses in a Single Glazed Flat
Plate
Collector

Ta

hw (Convective) hrga
Glass cover Tg (Radiative)

hcpg
(Convective) hrpg
Absorber plate Tp (Radiative)

Bottom
insulation
Under steady state conditions

• Rate of upward heat loss per unit area from absorber plate to glass cover is
 (T 4
p  T 4
g )
Qt''   hcpg (Tp  Tg )
1 1 (1)
 1
 p g

• Rate of upward heat loss per unit area from glass cover to the atmosphere is

Qt''   g (Tg4  Ts4 )  hw (Tg  Ta ) (2)

• Tg can be found by solving equations (1) and (2)

• The top heat loss factor is

Qt''
Ut  (3)
(Tp  Ta )
 Analytical Equations -

 Mullick and Samdarshi (1988) – Single Glazed FPC

  Tp  Tg  T  Tg    g  Tg  Ts  
1 1
 2 2
p
 4 4

U t   hcpg     hw    Lg / k g
 1/  p  1/  g  1   Tg  Ta 

Tg  Ta  hw 0.38  0.567 p  0.403  Tp / 429   Tp  Ta 

 Samdarshi and Mullick (1991; 1994)

-- Double Glazed FPC
-- FPC with N glass covers
 Akhtar and Mullick (1999) -
1
 12 X 10 T  0.2Tp   hw 
8 3

  0.3L g
f   a

1

 p  p a
 6 X 108   0.028 T  0.5T 3  0.6 L0.2
T  Ta  cos   
0.25

 p


fTp  Ta
Tg 
1 f

Akhar and Mullick (2007) - glass cover temperarures

(Double Glazed Collector)
 Estimation of hcpg
-------------------------------
1. Holland’s correlation:
+ +
1708   1708( sin 1.8φ ) 
+
  Ra cos φ 
1.6

1/ 3

Nu = 1 + 1.44 1 −  1 −  +   − 1
 Ra cos φ   Ra cos φ   5830  
for 0 ≤φ≤60 deg and 0<Ra< 105

2. Buchberg correlation:
+
 1708  for 1708 < Ra cosφ <5900
Nu = 1 +1.446 1 −
 Ra cos φ 


Nu = 0.229( Ra cos φ )
0.252
for 5900 < Ra cosφ <9.23x104

Nu = 0.157( Ra cos φ )
0.285
for 9.23X104 < Racosφ <106
Estimation of hw
------------------------
• McAdams (1954)

hw = 5.7 + 3.8 V ( Wind tunnel )

• Wattmuff (1977)

hw = 2.8 + 3 V ( Wind tunnel )

• Test et al.(1981)

hw = 8.55 + 2.56 V ( Field study )

• Mullick et al. (2007)

V  1.12m / s
hw = 7.07 + 3.25 V
 Estimation of sky temperature

1. Bliss correlation:
1/ 4
 Tdp − 273 
Ts = Ta 0.8 + 
 250 

2. Swinbank correlation:

Ts = 0.0552(Ta )1.5
 Thermal Performance of Collector

To

It

." .
Qu mc p  To  Ti 
 
m
It It
Ti
 . "
 

Q u   o I t  U L (Tp  Ta 
 

. "  
 

Qu  F '   o I t  U L  T w  Ta 
   
 

. "
 

Qu  T w  Ta 
  F o  F U L
' '

It  It 
 
Performance Curve of a Solar Collector
Y

F’ηo

Slope= -(F’UL)

X
Tw – Ta
Methods for Testing a Solar Collector

• Steady-State Collector Testing in a Closed

Loop Set-Up
2. National Bureau of Standards (NBS)
Procedure
2. ASHRAE Procedure

• Testing by Two Test Method

Open-Loop Collector Testing Following
C.S.I.R.O.
Some of the Work on Collector
Testing is Done at:

• CSU
• JPL
• IIT Delhi
General Conditions for Conducting
Tests Specified by NBS
• Flow Rate = 0.02 Kg/s per m2 of the collector area

• Variation in inlet and Outlet Temp of Water should not

exceed 0.50C each

• Inlet and Outlet temp of Water should be correct to

0.10C

• I > 630 W/m2

• Ti – Ta Should Correspond to 10,30,50 and 70 degrees
C

• Testing Time Limits – 3 hrs., Before & After Solar

Noon
 Closed Loop Test Set-up
Tf,o

It

H.E.
Tf,i Cold
Water

Flowmeter Pump
By-pass

mf

By-pass Control
 Schematic Diagram Showing Open Loop Testing
Const. Head Over Flow
Tf,o

Hot Water

Tf,i

Water Collection
SOLAR COOKERS
Concentrating Type Solar Cooker
Bureau of Indian Standards
Testing Method
• The test procedure considered is based on Thermal Test
Procedures for Box-Type Solar Cookers, by Mullick et
al(1987).

• This standard is presented in a more technical framework

than ASAE S580.

• provides two figures of merit, calculated so as to be as

mostly independent of environmental conditions (such as
ambient temperature, insolation, etc.) as possible.
• The two figures of merit are given by
the following equations.

Tps − Tas
F1 =
Hs

 1  Tw1  Ta  
1  
F1 ( MC ) w  F1  H  
F2  ln  
At  1  Tw 2  Ta  
 1  
 F1  H  
 Variation of Plate Temperature with Time of the
Day (Cooker Without Load)

140

130
Temperature(0C)

120

110

100

90

80

10.00 11.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 Time of the Day (hrs)

Under Stagnation, the Energy Balance for Horizontally
Placed Empty Solar cooker is :

ηoHS = UL (Tps- Tas)

ηo = (Tps- Tas)
UL Hs

F1 = (Tps- Tas)
Hs
 Variation of Temperature of Water in the
Vessels
With Time of the Day (with load)
100

95
Water Temperature (0C)

90

85

80

75

70

65

11.20 11.40 12.00 12.20 12.40 13.00 Time of the Day (hrs)

ττ
   MC  w  dTW o"
 Qu
Ad

UL 
 F o  I   Tw  Ta  
'

 o 

 w
MC Tw 2
dTw
  d  
A  1 
Tw1
F '  I   Tw  Ta  
 F1 
  1 
 F1  MC  w
'
 I   Tw 2  Ta  
F1
  ln  
AF ' o  I  1  T T  
 F1
w1 a

 1  Tw1  Ta  
 I   
F1  MC  w
'
F1  I  
F ' o  ln 
A  I  1  Tw 2  Ta  
  
 F1  I  

 1  Tw1  Ta  
 I   
F1  MC  w F1  I  
F 'o CR  ln 
A  I  1  Tw 2  Ta  
  
 F1  I  

 F2
  1  Tw 2  Ta  
1  
 F1 ( MC ) w  F1  I  
 ln 
F2 A  1  Tw1  Ta  
 1  
 F1  I  

 F1 ( MC ) w  1  100  Ta  
 boil  ln  1    
F2 A  F1  I 
• Using the Equation, a characteristic
curve can be developed that describes,
for a given set of conditions, how long
the cooker will take to reach the
reference temperature (τboil).
 Characteristic Curve of a Box Type Solar Cooker

500

τboil = ∞
400

300
τBoil (minutes)

200

100

0
100 – Ta 0
C
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 H 2
W/M
Paraboloid Concentrator
Solar Cooker
Performance equation of Paraboloid
Concentrator Solar Cooker :

  T T   T T  e  
o

  w2 a

 
w1 a
 
F 'U L   I   I  
F 'o  b b

C  1  e   o 

 
 
 Variation of F’ηo as the Bright Spot Moves
Across the Bottom of Pot

0.60
F’ηo

0.50

0.40
12:30 12:40 12:50 13:00 13:10
Time of Day (hrs.)
Time for Sensible Heating of water from ambient temp.
Up to 100oC

 
 
1
 boil   o ln  
 F 'U L 1  100  Ta  
 1   
 F 'o C Ib  
Characteristic Curve of a Paraboloid Concentrator
Solar Cooker
250

τboil = ∞
200

150
τBoil (minutes)

100

50

0
100 – Ta 0
C
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 Ib 2
W/M
The General Conditions for Conducting
Tests as per European Standards :
• Ambient temperature: 25°C-35°C

• Wind velocity < 4 m/s (at the cooker)

• Global irradiance (horizontal) >800 W/m2

• Diffuse fraction < 20%

 References
• Akhtar N. and Mullick S. C. (1999) Approximate method
for computation of glass-cover temperature and top heat-
loss coefficient of solar collectors with single glazing.
Solar Energy 66(5), 349-354.
• Akhtar N. and Mullick S. C. (2007) Computation of glass-
cover temperatures and top heat loss coefficient of flat-
plate solar collectors with double glazing. Energy, 32(7),
1067-1074.
• Bliss, R. W., Jr. (1981) Atomspheric radiation near the
surface of ground. Solar Energy 5, 103-120.
• Buchberg H., Catton I. and Edwards D. K. (1976) Natural
convection in enclosed spaces- a review of application to
solar energy collection. ASME Journal of Heat Transfer
98(2), 182-188.
• Hollands K.G. T., Unny T.E., Raithby G.D. and Konicek L.
(1976) Free convective heat transfer across inclined
layers. ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 98, 189-192.
• McAdams W. H. (1954) Heat Transmission, 3rd edition.
McGraw-Hill, New York.
• Mullick S. C. and Samdarshi S. K. (1988) An improved
technique for computing the top heat loss factor of a
flat plate collector with a single glazing. ASME J. Solar
Energy Engg.110, 262-267.
• Samdarshi S. K. and Mullick S.C. (1991) An analytical
equation for top heat loss factor of a flat-plate solar
collector with double glazing. ASME J. Solar
EnergyEngg.113, 117-122.
• Samdarshi S. K. and Mullick S.C. (1994) Generalized
analytical equation for the top heat loss factor of a flat
plate collector with N covers. ASME J. Solar Energy
Engg.116, 43-46.
• Swinbank W. C. (1963) Long wave radiation from clear
skies. Quarterly Journal of Royal Metrological Society
89, 339-348.
• Test F. L. Lessman R. C. L. and Johary A. (1981) Heat
transfer during wind flow over rectangular bodies in
natural environment. ASME J. Heat Transfer, 103, 262-
267.
• Wattmuff J. H., Charters W. W. S. and Proctor D.
(1977) Solar and wind induced external coefficients
solar collectors. Int. revue d’ Hellio-technique 2, p.56.
• Mullick S. C., Kumar Suresh, Chourasia B. K.(2007),
Wind induced heat transfer coefficient from flat
horizontal surfaces exposed to solar radiation,
Proceedings of Energy Sustainability (ASME), June 27-
30, Long Beach,California
THANKS
 Existing Standards

• American Society of Agricultural

Engineers Standard ASAE S580
• Bureau of Indian Standards Testing
Method IS 13429(Parts 1,2 &3)
• European Committee on Solar
Cooking Research Testing Standard
 Draw backs of ASAE S580

• The single figure of merit appears to be valueless

for assessing why a cooker achieved a certain
performance.
• Therefore, any use of the ASAE standard to
analyze the performance of a cooker, rather than
simply compare its performance to another cooker
would be very difficult.