Mobile communications : An

Overview
Transmission Media
The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver.

Computers and telecommunication devices use signals to represent
data.
These signals are transmitted from a device to another in the form of
electromagnetic energy.

Examples of Electromagnetic energy include power, radio waves,
infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet light, and X and gamma rays.

All these electromagnetic signals constitute the electromagnetic
spectrum
Not all portion of the spectrum are currently usable for
telecommunications

Each portion of the spectrum requires a particular
transmission medium
Classes of transmission media
Transmission Media

Guided media, which are those that provide a
conduit from one device to another.
Examples: twisted-pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber.
Unguided media (or wireless communication)
transport electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor. Instead, signals are broadcast
through air (or, in a few cases, water), and thus are
available to anyone who has a device capable of
receiving them.



Guided Media


There are three categories of guided media:
1. Twisted-pair cable
2. Coaxial cable
3. Fiber-optic cable

Twisted-pair cable
Twisted pair consists of two
conductors (normally copper),
each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together.
Twisted-pair cable comes in
two forms: unshielded and
shielded
The twisting helps to reduce the
interference (noise) and
crosstalk.


Frequency range for twisted-pair cable
The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has
developed standards to grade UTP.
1. Category 1. The basic twisted-pair cabling used
in telephone systems. This level of quality is fine
for voice but inadequate for data transmission.
2. Category 2. This category is suitable for voice
and data transmission of up to 2Mbps.
3. Category 3.This category is suitable for data
transmission of up to 10 Mbps. It is now the
standard cable for most telephone systems.
4. Category 4. This category is suitable for data
transmission of up to 20 Mbps.
5. Category 5. This category is suitable for data
transmission of up to 100 Mbps.


Table 7.1 Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables
Category Bandwidth Data Rate Digital/Analog Use
1 very low < 100 kbps Analog Telephone
2 < 2 MHz 2 Mbps Analog/digital T-1 lines
3 16 MHz 10 Mbps Digital LANs
4 20 MHz 20 Mbps Digital LANs
5 100 MHz 100 Mbps Digital LANs
6 (draft) 200 MHz 200 Mbps Digital LANs
7 (draft) 600 MHz 600 Mbps Digital LANs
Coaxial Cable (or coax)
Coaxial cable carries signals of
higher frequency ranges than
twisted-pair cable.

Coaxial Cable standards:
RG-8, RG-9, RG-11 are
used in thick Ethernet
RG-58 Used in thin Ethernet
RG-59 Used for TV

BNC connectors
To connect coaxial cable to devices, it is necessary to use
coaxial connectors. The most common type of connector is the
Bayone-Neill-Concelman, or BNC, connectors. There are three
types: the BNC connector, the BNC T connector, the BNC
terminator.
Applications include cable TV networks, and some traditional
Ethernet LANs like 10Base-2, or 10-Base5.

Optical Fiber
Metal cables transmit signals in the form of electric
current.
Optical fiber is made of glass or plastic and transmits
signals in the form of light.
Light, a form of electromagnetic energy, travels at
300,000 Kilometers/second ( 186,000 miles/second), in a
vacuum.
The speed of the light depends on the density of the
medium through which it is traveling ( the higher density,
the slower the speed).

Critical angle
If the angle of incidence increases, so does the angle of
refraction.
The critical angle is defined to be an angle of incidence for
which the angle of refraction is 90 degrees.
Reflection
When the angle of incidence
becomes greater than the
critical angle, a new
phenomenon occurs called
reflection.

Light no longer passes into the
less dense medium at all.


http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/ntnuja
va/viewtopic.php?t=32

Critical Angle
Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.
A glass or core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or
plastic. The difference in density of the two materials must be such
that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the
cladding instead of being into it.
Information is encoded onto a beam of light as a series of on-off flashes
that represent 1 and 0 bits.

Fiber construction
Types of Optical Fiber
There are two basic types of fiber: multimode fiber and
single-mode fiber.

Multimode fiber is best designed for short transmission
distances, and is suited for use in LAN systems and video
surveillance.

Single-mode fiber is best designed for longer transmission
distances, making it suitable for long-distance telephony
and multichannel television broadcast systems.
Single mode uses step-
index fiber and a highly
focused source of light
that limits beams to a
small range of angles,
all close to the
horizontal.
Fiber Sizes
Optical fibers are defined
by the ratio of the
diameter of their core
to the diameter of their
cladding, both
expressed in microns
(micrometers)


Type Core
Claddi
ng
Mode
50/1
25
50 125
Multimode,
graded-
index
62.5/
125
62.5 125
Multimode,
graded-
index
100/
125
100 125
Multimode,
graded-
index
7/12
5
7 125
Single-
mode
Advantages of Optical Fiber
The major advantages offered by fiber-optic
cable over twisted-pair and coaxial cable are
noise resistance, less signal attenuation, and
higher bandwidth.

Noise Resistance: Because fiber-optic
transmission uses light rather than electricity,
noise is not a factor. External light, the only
possible interference, is blocked from the
channel by the outer jacket.

Advantages of Optical Fiber
Less signal attenuation
Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater than
that of other guided media. A signal can run for miles
without requiring regeneration.
Higher bandwidth
Currently, data rates and bandwidth utilization over fiber-
optic cable are limited not by the medium but by the signal
generation and reception technology available.
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber
The main disadvantages of fiber optics are cost,
installation/maintenance, and fragility.
Cost. Fiber-optic cable is expensive. Also, a laser light
source can cost thousands of dollars, compared to
hundreds of dollars for electrical signal generators.
Installation/maintenance
Fragility. Glass fiber is more easily broken than wire,
making it less useful for applications where hardware
portability is required.

Unguided Media
Unguided media, or wireless communication, transport
electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.
Instead the signals are broadcast though air or water, and
thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of
receiving them.
The section of the electromagnetic spectrum defined as
radio communication is divided into eight ranges, called
bands, each regulated by government authorities.

Propagation of Radio Waves

Radio technology considers the earth as surrounded by two
layers of atmosphere: the troposphere and the
ionosphere.

The troposphere is the portion of the atmosphere
extending outward approximately 30 miles from the earth's
surface.
The troposphere contains what we generally think of as
air. Clouds, wind, temperature variations, and weather in
general occur in the troposphere.
The ionosphere is the layer of the atmosphere above the
troposphere but below space.


Propagation methods

Ground propagation. In ground propagation, radio
waves travel through the lowest portion of the
atmosphere, hugging the earth. These low-frequency
signals emanate in all directions from the transmitting
antenna and follow the curvature of the planet. The
distance depends on the power in the signal.
In Sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves
radiate upward into the ionosphere where they are
reflected back to earth. This type of transmission allows
for greater distances with lower power output.

In Line-of-Sight Propagation, very high frequency
signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from
antenna to antenna.

Bands
Band Range Propagation Application
VLF 330 KHz Ground Long-range radio navigation
LF 30300 KHz Ground
Radio beacons and
navigational locators
MF 300 KHz3 MHz Sky AM radio
HF 330 MHz Sky
Citizens band (CB),
ship/aircraft communication
VHF 30300 MHz
Sky and
line-of-sight
VHF TV,
FM radio
UHF 300 MHz3 GHz Line-of-sight
UHF TV, cellular phones,
paging, satellite
SHF 330 GHz Line-of-sight Satellite communication
EHF 30300 GHz Line-of-sight Long-range radio navigation
Propagation of Specific Signals
VLF Very Low Frequency
waves are propagated as surface
waves, usually through the air
but some times through
seawater. VLF waves do not
suffer much attenuation in
transmission but are susceptible
to the high levels of
atmospheric noise ( heat and
electricity) active at low
altitudes.
VLF waves are use mostly for
long-range radio navigation and
for submarine communication.
LF low frequency waves
are also propagated as
surface waves. LF waves
are used for long-range
radio navigation and for
radio beacons or
navigational locators.

MF Middle frequency
signals are propagated in
the troposphere. Uses for
MF transmissions include
AM radio, maritime radio,
and emergency
frequencies.
HF high frequency signals
use ionospheric
propagation. These
frequencies move into the
ionosphere, where they are
reflected back to earth.
Uses for HF signals
include amateur radio,
citizens band (CB)
radio, military
communication, long-
distance aircraft and ship
communication,
telephone, telegraph, and
fax.
VHF Most very high
frequency waves use line-
of-sight propagation. Uses
for VHF include VHF
television, FM radio, and
aircraft navigational aid.
UHF Ultrahigh frequency
waves always use line-of-
sight propagation. Uses
for UHF includes UHF
television, mobile
telephone, cellular radio,
and microwave links.
SHF Superhigh frequency
waves are transmitted
using mostly line-of-sight
and some space
propagation. Uses for SHF
include terrestrial and
satellite microwave and
radar communication.
EHF Extremely high
frequency waves use
space propagation. Uses
for EHF are
predominantly scientific
and include radar, satellite
and experimental
communications.
antennas
37
Introduction
An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of conductors
Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space
Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space
In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for transmission
and reception
EM waves in free space
v
2
= 1/(c
o

o
) so v = 3 x 10
8
m/s
c
o
= 8.855 x 10
-12
Farads/m

o
= 1.2566 x 10
-6
Henrys/m
EM waves in free space propagate
freely without attenuation
What is a plane wave?
Example is a wave propagating
along the x-direction
Fields are constant in y and z
directions, but vary with time
and space along the x-direction
Most propagating radio (EM)
waves can be thought of a plane
waves on the scale of the
receiving antenna

Radio Wave Spectrum
UHF (450 MHz, 800/900 MHz, 1800/1900MHz and 2100 MHz)are
typically used in communications system:
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de MC - 2013
Frequencies for communication
VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency
LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency
HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light
VHF = Very High Frequency

Frequency and wave length
= c/f
wave length , speed of light c ~ 3x10
8
m/s, frequency f

1 Mm
300 Hz
10 km
30 kHz
100 m
3 MHz
1 m
300 MHz
10 mm
30 GHz
100 m
3 THz
1 m
300 THz
visible light VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared UV
optical transmission
coax cable twisted
pair
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H.
Schiller
www.jochenschiller.de
MC - 2013
Example frequencies for mobile
communication
VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio
simple, small antenna for cars
deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections
SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication
small antenna, beam forming
large bandwidth available
Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF range
some systems planned up to EHF
limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules
(resonance frequencies)
weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall
etc.
Radio Waves Contd
Ground wave (<2 MHz): Waves with low frequencies
follow the earths surface and can propagate long distances
AM(LF,MF) radio.

Sky wave (230 MHz): Short waves that are reflected at the
ionosphere.
bounce back and forth between the ionosphere and the
earths surface, travelling around the world.
International Radio Broadcasts

Line-of-sight (>30 MHz): Mobile phone systems, satellite
systems, cordless

43
Ground Wave Propagation
44
Sky Wave Propagation
45
Line-of-Sight Propagation
46
47
Types of Antennas
Antennae are devices that transmit and receive electro magnetic signals.
Isotropic antenna (idealized)
Radiates power equally in all directions
Dipole antennas
Half-wave dipole antenna (or Hertz antenna)
Quarter-wave vertical antenna
(or Marconi antenna)
Parabolic Reflective Antenna
48
Radio Wave
50
Dipole antenna: ( / 2 dipole antenna )
2 wires each with length l = /4
attach ends to terminals of a high frequency AC generator
at time t, the generators right side = + and the left side =
electrons flow away from the terminal and towards the + terminal
most current flows in the center and none flows at the ends.

current distribution at time t
+
i(t) l = /4
A B
+
++++
+++++++
+++++++++++
+++++++++++++++
+++++++++++++++
- - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
voltage distribution at time t
A B
Dipole Wire Antenna
Very simple
Moderate bandwidth
Low directivity
Most commonly fed by a twinline transmission line
Linear polarization ( E
u
, assuming wire is along z axis)
The antenna is resonant when the length is about one-half free-space wavelength
current
0
/ 2 L ~
Monopole Wire Antenna ( /4 Antenna )
This is a variation of the dipole, using a ground plane instead of a second wire.
h
Feeding coax
0
/ 4 h ~
Similar properties as dipole
Mainly use for vertical polarization, with coaxial cable feeds
Property of R Struzak 53
Radiation pattern ( 3 D )
Antenna radiation pattern is
3-dimensional
The 3-D plot of antenna
pattern assumes both angles
and varying.
The Radiation pattern of a
given antenna defines a path
on which each point will have
identical signal strength at
any given instant t.
Source: NK Nikolova
Property of R Struzak 54
Radiation pattern ( 2 D )
Two 2-D patterns
Usually the antenna pattern is
presented as a 2-D plot, with
only one of the direction
angles, or varies
It is an intersection of the
3-D one with a given plane
usually it is a = const plane or
a = const plane that contains
the patterns maximum

Source: NK Nikolova
Plotting Radiation Patterns
Typical radiation patterns are displayed in a polar plot
56
Line-of-sight propagation
Attenuation - reflection
Attenuation - shadowing
Attenuation - Diffraction
Attenuation - Scattering
Modulation: Making the
Message Fit the Medium
Why Modulation?
Size of the antenna is inversely proportional to the frequency of transmitted
signal.
Low frequency signal need very large antenna which is not suitable for mobile
communication.
Voice signal ( 0.1 kHz 8 kHz ) , Music signal ( 0.1 kHz 16 kHz ), video signal (
10 kHz 2 MHz ) requires different sizes of antennae, which is not practically
possible.
To make the wireless transmission independent of the frequencies of different
signals like voice, music, video, of data signals is essential.
The frequency of transmitted signal should also be compatible with the
medium of the transmission. Different frequencies of different type signals
may not fit with the transmitting media.
Modulation is the solution to solve all the above problems.
The carrier wave is normally very high frequency analog signal which requires
small size antenna.
One of the property of carrier wave ( amplitude or frequency or phase angle )
is varied in proportion to the variation in amplitude of message signal.
Modulation of the signal
What is Modulation?
Modulation is the process of varying one signal, called
carrier signal, according to the pattern provided by
another signal ( message signal ).
The carrier signal is usually an analog signal selected to
match the characteristics of a particular transmission
system.
The amplitude, frequency or phase angle of a carrier
wave is varied in proportion to the variation in the
amplitude variation of the message signal.
The three types of Modulation are :
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
Transmitting analog data as analog signal
Analog Input Signal: called modulating signal/baseband signal
Carrier Signal: combines/multiply a higher frequency signal (the carrier signal) with
the input signal to become a higher frequency band (the modulated signal) so it
can fit the communications channel.
Modulation Techniques: amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM),
and phase modulation (PM)
TV or Radio: FM91.1 meaning ABC is broadcasting using frequency modulation
with a carrier signal frequency at 91.1MHz.
FDM: modulation permits frequency division multiplexing, allowing many radio
stations to operate at different non-overlapping frequencies.


Transmitting digital data as analog signal
Digital Input Signal: binary, or multi-levels
Modulation Techniques for digital signal: called Shift Keying, can be considered as
a simpler form of modulation.
Shift Keying: amplitude shift keying (ASF), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase
shift keying (PSK)
Dialup or ADSL Modem: a device that modulates digital data onto an analog signal
and then demodulates the analog signal back to digital data is a modem (short for
MOdulator/DEModulator).

CS 515 Ibrahim Korpeoglu 67
AM Modulation/Demodulation
Modulator Demodulator
Baseband Signal
with frequency
f
m

(Message Signal)

Bandpass Signal
with frequency
f
c

(Modulated Signal)

Wireless
Channel
Original Signal
with frequency
f
m
Source Sink
f
c
>> f
m
29/01/2003 Property of R. Struzak 68
Why Carrier?
Effective radiation of EM waves requires
antenna dimensions comparable with the
wavelength:
Antenna for 3 kHz would be ~100 km long
Antenna for 3 GHz carrier is 10 cm long
Sharing the access to the telecommunication
channel resources
CS 515 Ibrahim Korpeoglu 69
AM Modulation - Example
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
) 2 cos( )] cos( 2 2 1 [ 4 ) (
) 2 cos( )] ( 1 [ ) (
) 10 cos( 4 ) 2 cos(
) cos( 2 2 ) (
t f t t s
t f t m A t s
t t f A
t t m
c AM
c c AM
c c
t
t
t
+ + =
+ =
=
+ =
: Signal AM
: signal Carrier
: signal Message
Hz f
Hz f
mesg
c
16 . 0
2
1
6 . 1
2
10
= =
~ =
t
t
1/f
mesg
1/f
c
CS 515 Ibrahim Korpeoglu 70
- + - -
FM Example:
| |
) 8 2 cos(
) 2 sin( 4 8 2 cos ) (
) 2 cos( 4 ) (
t
t t t s
t t m
t
t t
t
+ =
= Message signal
FM Signal
Carrier Signal
0
-4
4
1 0.5 2
1.5
+
28/45
Modulation Techniques
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Binary Frequency Shift Keying
(BFSK)
Binary Phase Shift Keying
(BPSK)
29/45
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
In ASK, the two binary values are represented by to
different amplitudes of the carrier frequency
The resulting modulated signal for one bit time is



Susceptible to noise
Inefficient modulation technique
used for
up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
very high speeds over optical fiber

=
0 , 0
1 ), 2 cos(
) (
binary
binary t f A
t s
c
t
30/45
Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)
The most common form of FSK is Binary FSK (BFSK)
Two binary values represented by two different frequencies
( f
1
and f
2
)




less susceptible to noise than ASK
used for
up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
high frequency radio (3 to 30MHz)
even higher frequency on LANs using coaxial cable

=
0 ), 2 cos(
1 ), 2 cos(
) (
2
1
binary t f A
binary t f A
t s
t
t
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
f
2
f
2
f
1
f
1
f
2
f
1
f
2
f
2
f
2
f
1
f
2
36/45
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent data
Binary PSK (BPSK): two phases represent two binary digits
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0

0 0 0


Quadrature Phase Shift Keying(QPSK)
BPSK, 180% change in phase represent
change in bit
QPSK 90% change in phase represent change
in 2 bit sequence
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying(QPSK)
QPSK Modulation
8 phase shift keying ( 8PSK )
16QAM (Quadrature amplitude
modulation )
16QAM(Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation )
29/01/2003 Property of R. Struzak 81
Comparison of Modulation Types
Modulation
Format
Bandwidth
efficiency C/B
Log2(C/B) Error-free Eb/No
16 PSK 4 2 18dB
16 QAM 4 2 15dB
8 PSK 3 1.6 14.5dB
4 PSK 2 1 10dB
4 QAM 2 1 10dB
BFSK 1 0 13dB
BPSK 1 0 10.5dB
MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single
data link.
A Multiplexer (MUX) is a device that combines several signals
into a single signal.
A Demultiplexer (DEMUX) is a device that performs the
inverse operation.
85
Frequency Division Multiplexing




Multiplexing & Demultiplexing
Multiplexing
What are Multiplexers?
Multiplexers are hardware components that combine
multiple analog or digital input signals into a single line
of transmission.
And at the receivers end, the multiplexers are known
as de-multiplexers performing reverse function of
multiplexers.
Multiplexing is therefore the process of combining
two or more input signals into a single
transmission.
At receivers end, the combined signals are
separated into distinct separate signal.
Multiplexing enhances efficiency use of
bandwidth.
87
Why Use Multiplexing?
Multiplexing was first used to reduce the
number of transmission media needed
between cities and towns.
This resulted in significantly reduced costs for
trunk circuits.
Fiber optic cable allows the multiplexer to
combine as many as 6 million signals in one
direction on one fiber strand.
Frequency Spectrum and Bandwidth
The frequency spectrum of a signal is the collection of all the
component frequencies it contains and is shown using a
frequency-domain graph.

The bandwidth of a signal is the width of the frequency
spectrum, i.e., bandwidth refers to the range of component
frequencies.
To compute the bandwidth, subtract the lowest frequency
from the highest frequency of the range.

89
Bandwidth
Bandwidth (Bw) refers to the width of a signal,
which is determined by taking the difference
between the highest frequency of the signal
and its lowest frequency.
A voice signal is usually though of as a signal
between 0 and 4000 Hz (Bw = 4000 Hz).
In the United States, AT&T designed its FDM
systems to handle the band of signals
between 200 and 3400 Hz (Bw = 3200 Hz).
Types of Multiplexing
Multiplexing means that different channels,
users, or sources can share a common space,
time, frequency, or code for transmitting data.
Space Division Multiplexing
Time Division Multiplexing
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Code Division Multiplexing
Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)
In FDM signals generated by each device modulate
different carrier frequencies. These modulated signals are
combined into a single composite signal that can be
transported by the link.
Carrier frequencies are separated by enough bandwidth to
accommodate the modulated signal.
These bandwidth ranges arte the channels through which
various signals travel.
Channels must separated by strips of unused bandwidth
(guard bands) to prevent signal overlapping.

Example 1
Example 2
Space Division Multiplexing
SDM means division of the available space into sectors or
cells, so that multiple sources can access the medium at same
time.
Different Wireless Transmitters uses different space slot such
that signals from different transmitters can propagate in
separate spaces in the medium without effecting each other.
For example four groups of users, A, B, C, D uses four different
regional slots R1, R2, R3, R4.
Group A uses R1, Group B uses R2, group C uses R3 and Group
D uses R4 for transmitting and receiving signals to and from
base station.

Mobile station (MS) - Device used to communicate over the cellular network.
Base station tranceiver (BST) - Transmitter/ receiver used to transmit/ receive signals over
the radio interface section of the network.
Base station controller (BSC) - Controls communication between a group of BST's and a single
MSC.
Mobile switching centre (MSC) - The heart of the network, sets up and maintains calls made
over the network.
Public switched telephone network (PSTN) - The land based section of the network.
Time-division Multiplexing (TDM)
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that can be
applied when the data rate capacity of the transmission medium is
greater than the data rate required by the sending and receiving
devices.
TDM
TDM is a digital multiplexing technique to combine data.

Time-division Multiplexing (TDM)
TDM can be implemented in two ways: synchronous TDM and
asynchronous TDM.
In synchronous time-division multiplexing, the term
synchronous means that the multiplexer allocates exactly the
same time slot to each device at all times, whether or not a
device has anything to transmit.
Frames
Time slots are grouped into frames. A frame consists of a one
complete cycle of time slots, including one or more slots
dedicated to each sending device.
TDM frames
In a TDM, the data rate of the link
is n times faster, and the unit
duration is n times shorter.
Code-Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)
For code-division multiple access, all that is required is for
each transmitter to be assigned a different pseudo-noise
(PN) sequence
The PN sequence for the transmitter is only given to the
receiver that is to operate with the transmitter
The receiver will then only receive the correct signals and
ignore all others
108
Code Division Multiplexing
used in several wireless broadcast channels
(cellular, satellite, etc) standards
unique code assigned to each user; i.e.,
code set partitioning (psudorandom code )
all users share same frequency, but each user
has own chipping sequence (i.e., code) to
encode data
encoded signal = (original data) X (chipping
sequence)
decoding: inner-product of encoded signal
and chipping sequence.

Generation of CDMA wave
109
110
CDMA Encode/Decode
slot 1 slot 0
d
1
= -1
1 1 1 1
1 - 1 - 1 - 1 -
Z
i,m
= d
i
.
c
m
d
0
= 1
1 1 1 1
1 - 1 - 1 - 1 -
1 1 1 1
1 - 1 - 1 - 1 -
1 1 1 1
1 - 1 - 1 - 1 -
slot 0
channel
output
slot 1
channel
output
channel output Z
i,m
sender
code
data
bits
slot 1 slot 0
d
1
= -1
d
0
= 1
1 1 1 1
1 - 1 - 1 - 1 -
1 1 1 1
1 - 1 - 1 - 1 -
1 1 1 1
1 - 1 - 1 - 1 -
1 1 1 1
1 - 1 - 1 - 1 -
slot 0
channel
output
slot 1
channel
output
receiver
code
received
input
D
i
= E

Z
i,m
.
c
m
m=1
M
M
111
CDMA: two-sender interference
Packet Switching
Packet Switching
Circuit Switching
115
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)
Bluetooth Technology
Enables wireless communication between
devices that are at short distances
from each other.
Facilitates communication of Mobile devices with home
computers and with other devices.
Standard is Bluetooth IEEE 802.15.1 , operates at
frequency of 2.4 GHz radio spectrum. (1m to 100 m)
Hands-free talking b/w Mobile and Handset.
B/W Computer and printer.
Enables user mobility in a short space.
Video and picture exchange b/w camera and PC.
Downloads mp3 songs from internet to ipod.


ZigBee Technology
802.15.4 standard.
Lower network-join latency.
Designed for robotic control,
Home and monitoring applications.
Range of 70 mt
Data rates 20 240 kbps.

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Appilcations of ZigBee
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Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
WLAN
Network establishes communication between
mobile devices and internet.
802.11a,802.11b,802.11g standards.
WiFi (Wireless fidility)
WiMax (Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access )
WAP (Wireless application protocal )
i-Mode (Internet in Mobile Mode )
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Mobile System Networks- A Cell
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Mobile station (MS) - Device used to communicate over the cellular network.
Base station tranceiver (BST) - Transmitter/ receiver used to transmit/ receive signals over
the radio interface section of the network.
Base station controller (BSC) - Controls communication between a group of BST's and a single
MSC.
Mobile switching centre (MSC) - The heart of the network, sets up and maintains calls made
over the network.
Public switched telephone network (PSTN) - The land based section of the network.
Cellular Networks
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Cellular Network
A cell is the coverage area of a base station
connected to other stations via wire or fiber or
wirelessly through switching center.
Each cell has a base station.
The base station is works as an access point
for the mobile service.
All the base station towers forms a cellular
network.
Both mobiles in same cellular area are
connected through same base station.


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Mobile communication using WLAN
WLAN Network
A mobile device such as a pocket computer or
a laptop connects to an access point called a
hotspot.
The access point connects to a host LAN which
links up to the internet through router.
Thus connectivity is established between the
internet , LANs, mobile devices and
computers.
Mobile IP
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Mobile IP
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Mobile IP
Enables hosts to stay connected to the Internet regardless of
their location.
Enables hosts to be tracked without needing to change their IP
address.
Requires no changes non-mobile hosts/routers.
Requires addition of some infrastructure.
Has no geographical limitations.
Mobile Node (MN) : the Moving Device.
Home Agent (HA) : Router located on home network of MN.
Foreign Agent (FA) : Router of other network. If MN is away from
HA the it uses an FA to send/receive data to/from HA







August 24, 2006 Talk at SASTRA 131
What is an Ad hoc Network
Collection of mobile wireless nodes forming a network without
the aid of any infrastructure or centralized administration
Nodes have limited transmission range
Nodes act as a routers and so two nodes that are far apart can
communicate through intermediate nodes which act as routers in
forwarding data packets.

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Difference b/w Cellular and Ad-hoc Networks
Cellular Networks Ad-hoc Networks
Fixed, pre-located base stations. No fixed base stations, very rapid
deployment.
Static backbone network topology Highly dynamic network topologies.
Relatively favorable environment and
stable connectivity.
Noisy environment and irregular
connectivity.
Can plan before base stations
installation.
Ad-hoc network automatically forms
and conforms to change.
August 24, 2006 Talk at SASTRA 134
Ad Hoc Network
Characteristics
Dynamic topologies
Limited channel bandwidth
Variable capacity links
Energy-constrained operation
Limited physical security
Applications
Military battlefield networks
Personal Area Networks (PAN)
Disaster and rescue operation
Peer to peer networks
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Communication b/w mobile nodes and sensor
nodes using a base station as gateway
Data Dissemination
Data collection and distribution in a local environment, the
process by which queries or data routed in the network
mobile phone also acts as a data access device for obtaining
information from the service providers server.
An enterprise server disseminates the data to the enterprise
mobile device, such as the blackberry phone.
The three dissemination technologies are :
A) broadcasting or pushing. ( sending SMSs on mobiles)
B) pulling ( downloading ring tones from service providers. )
C) a hybrid of push and pull.

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Data Dissemination by servers through
base stations and access points
Data Synchronization
Data synchronization is the ability for data in
different databases to be kept up-to-date, so that
each repository contains the same information.
For Ex: if a new ringtone is added to one of the
servers of a mobile service provider, then data
synchronization entitles that all the servers of the
service provider will have identical sets of
ringtones.
A) one-to-one synchronization.
B) one-to-many synchronization.
C) many-to-many synchronization.
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Data Synchronization paths in mobile networks
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Location Management and Handoff process
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Authentication process in GSM