2 Basic Fault Calculation&Analysis of Balanced Fault

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Basic Fault Calculations
and Analysis of Balanced Faults
> Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults 2
Power System Fault Analysis
All Protection Engineers should have an understanding
To:-
Calculate Power System Currents and Voltages during
Fault Conditions
Check that Breaking Capacity of Switchgear is Not
Exceeded
Determine the Quantities which can be used by Relays to
Distinguish Between Healthy (i.e. Loaded) and Fault
Conditions
Appreciate the Effect of the Method of Earthing on the
Detection of Earth Faults
Select the Best Relay Characteristics for Fault Detection
Power System Fault Analysis
Ensure that Load and Short Ratings of Plant are Not
Exceeded
Select Relay Settings for Fault Detection and
Descrimination
Understand Principles of Relay Operation
Conduct Post Fault Analysis
Power System Fault Analysis Also Used To:-
Consider Stability Conditions
Required Fault Clearance Times
Need for 1 Phase or 3 Phase Auto-Reclose

Computer Fault Calculation Programmes
Widely available, particularly in large power utilities
Powerful for large power systems
Sometimes over-complex for simple circuits
Not always user friendly
Sometimes operated by other departments and not
directly available to protection engineers
Programme calculation methods:- understanding is
important
Need for by hand spot checks of calculations
Pocket Calculator Methods
Adequate for the majority of simple applications
Useful when no access is available to computers and
programmes e.g. on site
Useful for spot checks on computer results
Faults Are Mainly Caused By Insulation Failure
Underground Cables
Diggers
Overloading
Oil Leakage
Ageing
Overhead Lines
Lightning
Kites
Trees
Moisture
Salt
Birds
Broken Conductors
Faults Are Mainly Caused By Insulation Failure
Machines
Mechanical Damage
Unbalanced Load
Types Of Fault
/ E
/ / E
/
3
3/E
a
b
c
e
a
b
c
e
a
b
c
e
e
a
b
c
e
a
b
c
e
a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
e
a
b
c
Types Of Fault
OPEN
CIRCUITS
CROSS
COUNTRY
FAULT
OPEN
CIRCUIT
+
/ E
a
b
c
FAULT
BETWEEN
ADJACENT
PARALLEL
LINES
a
b
c
e
a'
b'
c'
e
a
b
c
e
Types Of Fault
CHANGING
FAULT IN
CABLE
a
b
c
Voltage Convention
In power system analysis it is important to maintain a
consistent approach when relating currents and voltages

This is achieved by maintaining a VOLTAGE
CONVENTION:
V
AB
= Voltage of A above B = + I Z
~

I

E
AB
A

Z

V
AB
+

-

B

Vectors
Rotating Vectors can be used to represent
Sinusoidal Electrical Quantities
et

+V

= Vsinet

-V

V
Vectors
Vector notation can be used to represent phase
relationship between electrical quantities
V
Z
I
u
V = Vsinet = V Z0
I = I Z-u = Isin(et-u)
Vector Multiplication And Division
Vector Multiplication
u
A
u
B
A.B

u
A
+ u
B

B
A
A.B = A u
A
. B u
B

= A.B (u
A
+ u
B
)

Z Z
Z
Vector Multiplication And Division
Z
u
A
u
B
Example:
Z
V

0 V

V
Z
0
0
Z = Z =
Z
Z
= =
I
I I
Vector Division
= A u
A
/ B u
A
= (u
A
- u
B
)

B
A
B
A
Z Z
B
A
j Operator
Rotates vectors by 90 anti-clockwise :
Used to express vectors in terms of real and
imaginary parts.
1
90 90
90 90
j = 1 Z90
j
2
= 1 Z180
= -1
j
3
= 1 Z270
= -j
j Operator
Used to express vectors in terms of real and
imaginary parts
Z Z Z = : Example
Imaginary

Real
ZCosu
ZSinu
u
Z
jX R
sin Z j Zcos Z Z
+ =
+ = Z =
Resistance

Reactance

j Operator
u
0
0 V V Z =
) ( sin = Z = t I I I e
0
0 V t sin V V : LET Z = = e
Z
V V
Z IMPEDANCE Z = Z = =
I
I
jX

R

u
sin jZ cos Z Z Z + = Z =
plane R/jX on angles ise anticlockw by d represente V Lagging I
a = 1 Z120
Rotates vectors by 120 anticlockwise
Used extensively in Symmetrical Component Analysis
120
120 1
120
2
3
j
2
1
- 120 1 a + = Z =
2
3
j
2
1
240 1 a
2
= Z =
a = 1 Z120
Balanced 3 voltages :-
V
A

V
C
= aV
A

a
2
+ a + 1 = 0
V
B
= a
2
V
A

Balanced (3) Faults
RARE :- Majority of Faults are Unbalanced
CAUSES :-
1. System Energisation with Maintenance Earthing
Clamps still connected.
2. 1 Faults developing into 3 Faults
3 FAULTS MAY BE REPRESENTED BY 1 CIRCUIT
Valid because system is maintained in a BALANCED state
during the fault
Voltages equal and 120 apart
Currents equal and 120 apart
Power System Plant Symmetrical
Phase Impedances Equal
Mutual Impedances Equal
Shunt Admittances Equal
Balanced (3) Faults
LINE X
LOADS
LINE Y
3 FAULT
Z
LOAD

Z
LY

I
bF

I
cF

I
aF
Z
LX
Z
T
Z
G

E
c

E
a

E
b

GENERATOR TRANSFORMER
Balanced (3) Faults
Positive Sequence (Single Phase) Circuit :-
E
a

E
c

E
a

F
1

N
1

E
b

I
bF

I
a1
= I
aF

I
cF

I
aF

Z
T1
Z
LX1
Z
LX2
Z
G1

Z
LOAD

Maximum Fault Level
Three Phase Fault Level:
I
F
(max) = VA Fault level / (3 x Line voltage)
= (MVA x 1000) / (3 x kV)
Typical Maximum Fault Levels:

System Voltage kV MVA Fault Level Max. Fault Current
(kA)
400 35 000 50
132 5 000 22
33 1 000 17.5
11 250 13.1
400V 25 55
Single Phase Fault Level:
Can be higher than 3 fault level on solidly-earthed systems;
Check that switchgear breaking capacity > maximum fault level for
all types
Generator Short Circuit Current
The AC Symmetrical component of the short circuit current varies with time
due to effect of armature reaction.

Magnitude (RMS) of current at any time t after instant of short circuit :

where :
I" = Initial Symmetrical S/C Current or Subtransient Current
= E/Xd"
I' = Symmetrical Current a Few Cycles Later or
Transient Current = E/Xd'
I = Symmetrical Steady State Current = E/Xd
)e - ' ( )e ' - " (
t/Td' - t/Td" -
ac
+ + =
i
TIME
Simple Generator Models
Generator model to calculate the initial symmetrical S/C
current or subtransient current
jXd
Generator model to obtain the S/C current a few cycles later,
IE; the transient current
Generator model to obtain the steady state current
jXd
E
E
E
jXd
Variation Of Generator Fault Current After Fault
Instant No Voltage Regulation
I
ac
= (I
d
I
d
)e
-t/T
+ (I
d
- I
d
)e
-t/T
+ I
d
CURRENT
T
T
I
d

I
d

I
d

0.368 [I
d
I
d
]
0.368 [I
d
I
d
]
TIME
Effect of Automatic Voltage Regulation On Short
Circuit Current Of Generators
With AVR

Without AVR
Multiples
Of Rated
Current
TIME IN SECS
1 2
3 4
2
4
6
8
Parallel Generators
If both generator EMFs are equal they can be thought
of as resulting from the same ideal source - thus the
circuit can be simplified.
11kV
20MVA
X
G
=0.2pu
11kV 11kV
j0.05 j0.1
X
G
=0.2pu
20MVA
P.U. Diagram
I
F

j0.05
j0.1
j0.2
1.0
1.0
j0.2
I
F

j0.05 j0.1
j0.2 j0.2
1.0

Positive Sequence Impedances of Transformers
2. Winding Transformers
Z
P
= Primary Leakage Reactance
Z
S
= Secondary Leakage
Reactance
Z
M
= Magnetising impedance
= Large compared with Z
P

and Z
S

Z
M
Infinity Represented by
an Open Circuit
Z
T1
= Z
P
+ Z
S
= Positive
Sequence Impedance
Z
P
and Z
S

both expressed
on same voltage
base.
S
1

P
1

P S
P
1

S
1

Z
P
Z
S

Z
M

N
1

N
1

Z
T1
= Z
P
+ Z
S

Positive Sequence Impedances of Transformers
3. Winding Transformers
Z
P,
Z
S,
Z
T
= Leakage reactances of Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Windings

Z
M
= Magnetising Impedance = Large

Ignored
P S
T
P
T
S
Z
P

Z
M

N
1

Z
T

Z
S

P
T
S
Z
P

N
1

Z
T

Z
S

Z
P-S
= Z
P
+ Z
S
= Impedance
between Primary (P) and
Secondary (S) where Z
P
& Z
S
are
both expressed on same voltage
base

Similarly Z
P-T
= Z
P
+ Z
T
and Z
S-T
=
Z
S
+ Z
T
T
Auto-Transformers
Equivalent circuit is similar to that of a 3 winding transformer
H L
H
T
L
Z
H1
N
1

Z
T1

Z
L1
ZM = Magnetising Impedance = Large Ignored

T
Z
HL1
= Z
H1
+ Z
L1
(both referred to
same voltage base)
Z
HT1
= Z
H1
+ Z
T1
(both referred to
same voltage base)
Z
LT1
= Z
L1
+ Z
T1
(both referred to
same voltage base)
Z
M1

H
T
L
Z
H1
N
1

Z
T1

Z
L1
Motors
Fault current contribution decays with time
Decay rate of the current depends on the system. From tests,
typical decay rate is 100 - 150ms.
Typically modelled as a voltage behind an impedance

X
d
"
M 1.0
Induction Motors IEEE Recommendations
Small Motors
Motor load <35kW neglect
Motor load >35kW SC
M
= 4 x sum of FLC
M

Large Motors
SC
M
~ motor full load amps
Xd"

Approximation : SC
M
= locked rotor amps
SC
M
= 5 x FLC
M
~ assumes motor
impedance 20%
Synchronous Motors IEEE Recommendations
Large Synchronous Motors
SCM ~ 6.7 x FLCM for Assumes X"d = 15%
1200 rpm

~ 5 x FLCM for Assumes X"d = 20%
514 - 900 rpm

~ 3.6 x FLCM for Assumes X"d = 28%
450 rpm or less
Overhead Line Impedances
R = AC RESISTANCE
L = SERIES INDUCTABLE
C = SHUNT CAPACITANCE
G = SHUNT CONDUCTANCE (NEGLIGABLE)

Series elements are of greatest interest to protection
engineers
R L
C G
SERIES
SHUNT
Symmetrical Circuit
A
D
C
D
B
D
Carsons Equations
( )
( )
O + =
=
O + + =
=
mile
mile
/
/
D
De
log j0.00466f 0.00159f
Z Impedance Mutual
De
log 0.00466f j 0.00159 R
Z Impedance Self
10
M
G
10
P
t
|
( ) ) / mile O + = = =
G
10 M p 2 1
D
log 0.00466f j R Z - Z Z Z
t
Where: -
R = Conductor a.c. resistance

t
G
= Geometric mean radius of a single conductor
D = Spacing between parallel conductors
De = Equivalent spacing of the earth return path (ft)
= 2160 e/f
E = Earth resistivity (ohm metres)
( ) /mile
.D
De
log 0.01398f. j 0.00477f R 2Zm Z Z
2
G
3
10 p o
t
+ + = + =
Positive Sequence
Ea
Eb
Ec
I
a1
I
b1
I
c1
Z
p
Z
p
Z
p
Z
m
Z
m
Z
m
Ea = I
a1
Z
p
+ I
b1
Z
m
+ I
c1
Z
m
= I
a1
{Z
p
Z
m
}
Z
1
= = Z
p
Z
m

Ea
I
a1

Zero Sequence
E = I Z
p
+ 2 I Z
m

= I { Z
p
+ 2 Z
m
}
Z
O
= Z
p
+ 2 Z
m
+ Z
OM
Single
Circuit
Double
Circuit Line (Single Circuit)
E
I

I

I

Z
p
Z
p
Z
p
Z
m
Z
m
Z
m
Z
0
= = Z
p
+ 2Z
m

Ea
I
Non Symmetrical Circuits
Transposed Line:-
DAB
DCA
A
B
C
DBC
A
B
C
C
C
A
A
B
B
Non Symmetrical Circuits
A DAB.DBC.DC
conductors between distance mean Geometric D
: where

.D
De
log 0.00869f. j 0.00296f R

De
0.01398f. j 0.00477f R Z

D
log 0.0029f. j R
/mile) (
D
log 0.00466f. j R Z Z
3
2
G
10
G
O
G
10
G
10 2 1
=
=
O + + =
O + + =
O + =
O + = =
) / (
) / (
.
log
) / (
3
2
3
10
Km
mile
D
Km
t
t
t
t
Typical GMD Values For 3 Overhead Lines
100 200 300 400 500
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
GMD
(Metres)
System Operating Voltage (kV -)
Positive Sequence Induction Of Overhead
Transmission Lines Typical Values
System Voltage kV
km
mH
100 200 300 400
1
1.5
D Increasing

G
~ Constant
0

G
Increasing Faster Than D
t
t
G
D
log
10
o x
t
Base Quantities and Per Unit Values
Particularly useful when analysing large systems with
several voltage levels
All system parameters referred to common base quantities
Base quantities fixed in one part of system
Base quantities at other parts at different voltage levels
depend on ratio of intervening transformers
11 kV
20 MVA
O/H LINE
11/132 kV
50 MVA
Z
T
= 10%
Z
T
= 10%
132/33 kV
50 MVA
FEEDER
Z
L
= 8O
Z
L
= 40O
Z
G
= 0.3 p.u.
Base Quantities Normally Used :-
BASE MVA = MVA
b
= 3C MVA
Constant at all voltage levels
Value ~ MVA rating of largest item
of plant or 100MVA
BASE VOLTAGE = KV
b
= C/C voltage in kV
Fixed in one part of system
This value is referred through
transformers to obtain base
voltages on other parts of system
Base voltages on each side of
transformer are in same ratio as
voltage ratio

Other Base Quantities :-
kA in
kV . 3
MVA
Current Base
Ohms in
MVA
) (kV
Z Impedance Base
b
b
b
b
2
b
b
= I =
= =
Per Unit Values = Actual Value
Base Value
Current Unit Per
) (kV
MVA
. Z
Z
Z
Z Impedance Unit Per
KV
KV
kV Voltage Unit Per

MVA
MVA
MVA MVA Unit Per
b
a
p.u.
2
b
b
a
b
a
p.u.
b
a
p.u.
b
a
p.u.
= =
= = =
= =
= =
Per Unit Values = Actual Value/ Base Value

The base or reference value is generally related to the
equipment rating

E.g. Current rating = 600A
600A = 1.0 pu

Sometimes specified in percentage, where 1 pu = 100%


For Impedances

Per unit value = Ohmic value / Base value

Base Value = (kV
2)
/ MVA

If a 11kV / 440V transformer is rated at 500kVA, with an
impedance 0.1 pu (10%) :

Ohmic value = Per unit value x Base value
= 0.10 x (0.440
2
/ 0.500)
= 0.10 x 0.387
= 0.039 Viewed from the LV side
= 24.2 Viewed from the HV side

Transformer Unit Impedance
Z Per Unit = Z p.u.
Z Percentage = 100 x Z p.u.
Z p.u. = Z
a
/Z
b
= Z
actual
/ Z
base

Za =

Zb = = =

Zp.u. = =
kV / (TEST)
I (RATED)
Z
P

Z
S

Z
M

kV/
(TEST)
3. I
(RATED)
kV/
(TEST)
2
kV/
(TEST)
2
kV/ (TEST)

MVA
(RATED)
3. kV/
(RATED)
. I
(RATED)
3. I
(RATED)

Za kV/
(TEST)
Zb kV/
(RATED)
Transformer Percentage Impedance
Increase Vp

until I
(RATED)
flows in secondary

Z
(Percentage)
=

Z
p.u.
=

Vp
I (RATED)
Z
P

Z
S

Z
M

S/C
Secondary
Vp x 100%

V
(RATED)
Vp

V
(RATED)
If Z
T
= 5%
with Secondary S/C
5% V
(RATED)
produces I
(RATED)
in Secondary.
V
(RATED)
produces 100 x I
(RATED)
5
= 20 x I
(RATED)
If Source Impedance Z
S
= 0
Fault current = 20 x I
(RATED)

Fault Power = 20 x kVA
(RATED)

Z
T
is based on I
(RATED)
& V
(RATED)

i.e. Based on MVA
(RATED)
& kV
(RATED)

is same value viewed from either side of transformer

Example (1)

Per unit impedance of transformer is same on each side of
the transformer.

Consider transformer of ratio kV1 / kV2

Actual impedance of transformer viewed from side 1 = Z
a1

Actual impedance of transformer viewed from side 2 = Z
a2

MVA
1
2
kV
b
= kV
1
kV
b
= kV
2

Z
p.u.1
= Z
a1
= Z
a1
x MVA
Z
b1
kV
1
2

Z
p.u.2
= Z
a2
= Z
a2
x MVA
Z
b2
kV
2
2

BUT Z
a2
= Z
a1 x
kV
2
2

kV
1
2

Z
p.u.2
=

Z
a1 x
kV
2
2
x MVA
kV
1
2

kV
2
2

= Z
a1
x MVA
kV
1
2

= Z
p.u.1

Example (2)

Base voltage on each side of a transformer must be in the
same ratio as voltage ratio of transformer

Incorrect selection
of kVb 11.8kV 132kV 11kV

Correct selection 132x11.8 132kV 11kV
of kVb 141
= 11.05kV

Alternative correct 11.8kV 141kV 141x11 = 11.75kV
selection of kVb 132
11.8kV
11.8/141kV 132/11kV
OHL
Distribution
System
Conversion of Per Unit Values from One Set of
Quantities to Another
Z
p.u. 2
Z
p.u. 1

Z
b1
Z
b2

MVA
b1
MVA
b2

kV
b1
kV
b2

Actual Z = Z
a
2
b2
2
b1
b1
b2
p.u.1
2
b2
b2
b1
2
b1
p.u.1
b2
b1
p.u.1
b2
a
p.u.2
b1
a
p.u.1
) (kV
) (kV
x
MVA
MVA
x Z
) (kV
MVA
x
MVA
) (kV
x Z
Z
Z
x Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
=
=
= =
=
Conversion of Per Unit Values from One Set of
Quantities to Another
kV
b
MVA
b
132
50
349
O
219 A
33
50
21.8 O
874 A
Z
V
11
50
2625 A
2.42O
11 kV
20 MVA
132/33 kV
50 MVA
10%
40O
11/132 kV
50 MVA
10%
8O
3C
FAULT
0.3
p.u.

Z
b
=
2
MVA
b
kV
b
I
b
= MVA
b
\3kV
b
p.u.
0.3 x 50
20
= 0.75
p.u.

0.1
p.u.

40
349
= 0.115
p.u.

0.1
p.u.

8
21.8
= 0.367
p.u.

1
p.u.

1.432
p.u.

I
F
= 1 = 0.698p.u.
1.432
I
11
kV = 0.698 x I
b
=
0.698 x 2625 = 1833A
I
132
kV = 0.698 x 219 = 153A
I
33
kV = 0.698 x 874 = 610A
Circuit Laws
Three laws from which all circuit theorems have been derived: -

Ohms Laws Z
V
I
V = IZ
Kirchoffs Junction Law
I
2
I
1
I
3
I = 0
I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
= 0
Kirchoffs Mesh Law
E
1
Z
1
Z
2
Z
3
1

2

E
2
i
1
i
2
Round Any Mesh E = IZ
e.g. E
1
= i
1
Z
1
+ i
1
Z
3
i
2
Z
3
etc.
Thevenins Theorem (1)
Useful for replacing part of a system which is not of particular interest
by a single equivalent voltage and series impedance
For Example: -
Replacement of power system supplying an industrial network
~

E
1
~

Z
1
Z
2
Z
3
E
2
E
1
~

Z
1
Z
3
E
1

= Open Circuit Voltage
= Z
3

. E
1
Z
1
+ Z
3
Thevenins Theorem (2)
~

E
1

~

Z Z
2
E
2
Z
1
Z
3
Z = Impedance with E
1
S/C
= Z
1
Z
3

Z
1
+ Z
3
Thevenin equivalent circuit :-
Star/Delta & Delta/Star Transform Theorem (1)
Useful when reducing overall system equivalent impedance to
a single value
~

~

~

~

~

Z
EQUIV
Star/Delta & Delta/Star Transform Theorem (2)
Z
10
Z
30
Z
20
1

2

3

31 23 12
31 12
10
Z Z Z
Z . Z
Z
+ +
=
31 23 12
23 12
20
Z Z Z
Z . Z
Z
+ +
=
31 23 12
31 23
30
Z Z Z
Z . Z
Z
+ +
=
30
20 10
20 10 12
Z
Z . Z
Z Z Z + + =
10
30 20
30 20 23
Z
Z . Z
Z Z Z + + =
20
10 30
10 30 31
Z
Z . Z
Z Z Z + + =
Z
31
Z
12
Z
23
1

2

3

Superposition Theorem
Z
3
~

E
1
~

E
2
Z
1
Z
2
E
1
~

Z
1
Z
2
~

E
2
Z
1
Z
2
I
3
Z
3
I
31
I
32
+

Z
3
I
3
= I
31
+ I
32
Reducing System to a Single Source (Ex = EY)
Healthy Loaded System
~

E
X
~

F
1
N
1
Faulted System (3 Fault):-
E
X
~

F
1
N
1
E
Y
E
Y
~

I
F
Reducing System to a Single Source (Ex = EY)
If E
X
= E
Y
= E
E

~

F
1
N
1
Ignore Load:-
E

~

F
1
N
1
I
F
I
F
Reducing System to a Single Source (Ex EY)
E
X
~

F
1
N
1
Healthy Loaded System:-
F
1
N
1
V
PF
= E
~

E
Y
Thevenise between F
1
and N
1
:-
~

E

Reducing System to a Single Source (Ex EY)
Fault Between F
1
and N
1
:-
F
1
N
1
Ignore Load:-
~

E

F
1
N
1
E

~

I
F
I
F
Pre-Fault Load Conditions (1)
V
PF
~

I
3L
I
IL
Z
2
I
2L
Z
1
Z
2
Z
4
Z
6
P
1
N
1
I
4L
Z
5
I
5(L)
I
6L
~

Ex
EY

Pre-Fault Load Conditions: -

For a fault at P
Pre-fault voltage = V
PF
Pre-fault Load Currents = I.
(L)
Pre-Fault Load Conditions (2)
P
1
Z
3
Z
4
Z
6
N
1
I
4(F)
I
3(F)
Z
5
I
5(F)
I
6(F)
~

E
Y
Three Phase Fault At P: -
Using exact values of E
X
and E
Y
Total current in each branch = I
(F)
~

I
I(F)
I
2(F)
Z
1
E
X
Z
2
I
F
Three Phase Fault At P
P
1
I
1(T)
I
2(T)
Z
1
Z
3
Z
4
Z
6
N
1
I
4(T)
I
3(T)
Z
5
I
5(T)
I
6(T)
~

V
PF
Thevenised Circuit Used To Calculate Fault
Current I
F
Current in each branch of system is not necessarily the total
current in the branch
Current in branches = I-
(T)
I
-(T)
I
-(F)
Z
2
I
T
= I
F
Pre Fault Load Circuit
This can be represented by:-

Z
1
I
I(L)
E
Y
E
X
I
2(L)
Z
3
Z
4
Z
6 I
4(L)
Z
5
I
5(L)
I
6(L)
Z
2
~

I
3(L)
~

N
1
V
PF
P
1
Z
1
I
I(L)
E
Y
E
X
I
2(L)
Z
3
Z
4
Z
6
I
4(L)
Z
5
I
5(L)
I
6(L)
Z
2
~

I
3(L)
~

N
1
V
PF
P
1
Theoretical generator V
PF
does not affect the current distribution

Calculate load current followed by pre-fault voltage using superposition
~

LOAD

Power System

A

B

~
3 FAULT

~
Example Calculation
O

N
1
V
PF
E

E
1.6

A

B

2.5

0.75

0.45

0.45

18.85

~ ~
O

Convert impedances A0, B0 + N
1
0 to equivalent A impedances

Z
AN1
= Z
A0
+ Z
N10
+

= 0.75 + 18.85 + = 51
B0
N10 A0
Z
.Z Z
0.45
18.85 x 0.75
N
1
V
PF
E

E
1.6

A

B

2.5

0.75

0.45

0.45

18.85

~ ~
O

This gives :-
Example Calculation
Z
AB
= 1.22
Z
AN1
= 51
Z
BN1
= 30.6
N
1
V
PF
E

E
1.6

A

B

2.5

0.4

~ ~
Circuit with equivalent A impedances:
By Thevenins Theorem the network can be represented by:-
1.22
51
30.6
N
1
V
PF
1.6

A

B

2.5

0.4

Example Calculation
Reducing the network to a single voltage and impedance
A

1.55
V
PF
1.215

~
N
1
V
PF
A

1.55

0.82

0.345

~
N
1
V
PF
0.682

~
A

N
1
Example Calculation
Assuming IF = 1
0.682

N
1
V
PF
~
A

A

IF=1.0
1.215

1.55
V
PF ~
N
1
0.56

=
2.765
1.215
0.44

1.0
N
1
V
PF
A

1.55

0.82

0.345

~
0.56

0.44

1.0
This gives :-
Example Calculation
553 . 0
31
6 . 30 x 56 . 0
=
0.56-0.376
=0.184

0.44-0.427
=0.013

427 . 0
6 . 52
51 x 44 . 0
=
1.22
51
30.6
V
PF
1.6

A

B

2.5

0.4

0.56-0.553
=0.007

376 . 0
72 . 3
5 . 2 x 56 . 0
=
1.0
N
1
V
PF
A

1.55

0.82

0.345

~
0.56

0.44

1.0
Now convert A impedances AN
1
, BN
1
, and AB
back to equivalent impedances:
N
1
Example Calculation
0.553 - 0.184
=0.369

0.553
0.184

0.389 0.369
=0.02

1.0

1.0 (0.427+0.184)
= 1.0 0.611
= 0.389

Positive Sequence
Distribution Factors
0.427

N
1
V
PF
E

E
1.6

A

B

2.5

0.75

0.45

0.4

18.85

~ ~
O

Example Calculation
D.C. Transients & Offsets
~

R + jeL

V
M
sin (et + )

i
F
ZZ

Fault Applied

i
F
i
a.c.
i
d.c.
i
F
= I
d.c.
+ I
a.c.
) - (wt sin
Z
V
e ) - ( sin
Z
V -
M Rt/L - M
+ +
D.C. Transient Symmetrical A.C.
Component Component

Max. value when ( ) = or

If = 90, this occurs when = 0 or 180, i.r. when the fault occurs at
voltage zero.
=

2
3

t
2
-
t

2 Basic Fault Calculation&Analysis of Balanced Fault

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> Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults 51

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> Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults 51

> Basic Fault Calculations & Analysis of Balanced Faults 52

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2 Basic Fault Calculation&Analysis of Balanced Fault

2 Basic Fault Calculation&Analysis of Balanced Fault