Road User Effects

Rodrigo Archondo-Callao ETWTR

The World Bank

Representative Vehicles
Motorized Traffic Motorcycle Small Car Medium Car Large Car Light Delivery Vehicle Light Goods Vehicle Four Wheel Drive Light Truck Medium Truck Heavy Truck Articulated Truck Mini-bus Light Bus Medium Bus Heavy Bus Coach

Non-Motorized Traffic Bicycles Rickshaw Animal Cart Pedestrian

Road User Costs Models

Vehicle Operating Costs
Time Costs

Fuel Lubricant oil Tire wear Crew time Maintenance labor Maintenance parts Depreciation Interest Overheads

Passenger time Cargo holding time

Accidents Costs

Vehicle Speed and Physical Quantities

Road Roughness and Terrain and Vehicle Characteristics

Vehicle Speed

Physical Quantities

Unit Costs

Road User Costs

Terrain Characteristics: Rise Plus Fall and Horizontal Curvature

Vertical Profile

Rise Plus Fall = (R1+R2+R3+F1+F2) / Length (meters/km)

Horizontal Profile

Horizontal Curvature = (C1+C2+C3+C4) / Length (degrees/km)

Physical Quantities
Component Fuel Lubricant oil Tire wear Crew time Passenger time Cargo holding time Maintenance labor Maintenance parts Depreciation Interest Quantities per Vehicle-km liters liters # of equivalent new tires hours hours hours hours % of new vehicle price % of new vehicle price % of new vehicle price

Free-Flow Speeds Model

Free speeds are calculated using a mechanistic/behavioral model and are a minimum of the following constraining velocities. VDRIVEu and VDRIVEd = uphill and downhill velocities limited by gradient and used driving power VBRAKEu and VBRAKEd = uphill and downhill velocities limited by gradient and used braking power VCURVE = velocity limited by curvature VROUGH = velocity limited by roughness VDESIR = desired velocity under ideal conditions

Free-flow Speed and Gradient

300 250
VBRAKE

VCURVE

Speed (km/hr)

200
VROUGH VDRIVE 150

100

VDESIR

50

Speed
0 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Roughness = 3 IRI m/km Curvature = 25 degrees/km

Gradient (%)

VDRIVE
Drive Force Grade Resistance Air Resistance Rolling Resistance - Driving power - Operating weight - Gradient - Density of air - Aerodynamic drag coef. - Projected frontal area - Tire type - Number of wheels - Roughness - Texture depth - % time driven on snow covered roads - % time driven on water covered roads

VROUGH
VROUGH is calculated as a function of roughness.

VROUGH = ARVMAX/(a0 * RI)

RI = Roughness

ARVMAX = Maximum average rectified velocity

a0 = Regression coefficient

VDESIR
VDESIR is calculated as a function of road width, roadside friction, non-motorized traffic friction, posted speed limit, and speed enforcement factor. VDESIR = min (VDESIR0, PLIMIT*ENFAC) PLIMIT = Posted speed limit ENFAC = Speed enforcement factor VDESIR0 = Desired speed in the absence of posted speed limit

VDESIR0 = VDES * XFRI * XNMT * VDESMUL

XFRI, XNMT = Roadside and NMT factors VDESMUL = Multiplication factor VDES = Base desired speed

Traffic Flow Periods

To take into account different levels of traffic congestion at different hours of the day, and on different days of the week and year, HDM-4 considers the number of hours of the year (traffic flow period) for which different hourly flows are applicable. Flow
Flow Periods Peak Next to Peak Medium flow Next to Low Overnight

Number of Hours in the Year

Passenger Car Space Equivalent (PCSE)

To model the effects of traffic congestion, the mixed traffic flow is converted into equivalent standard vehicles. The conversion is based on the concept of passenger car space equivalent (PCSE), which accounts only for the relative space taken up by the vehicle, and reflects that HDM-4 takes into account explicitly the speed differences of the various vehicles in the traffic stream.
Motorcycle Small Car Medium Car Large Car Light Delivery Vehicle Light Goods Vehicle Four Wheel Vehicle Light Truck 0.50 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.30 Medium Truck Heavy Truck Articulated Truck Mini-bus Light Bus Medium Bus Heavy Bus Coach 1.40 1.60 1.80 1.20 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70

Speed Flow Model

To consider reduction in speeds due to congestion, the three-zone model is adopted.

Speed (km/hr)
S1 S2 S3 S4

Sult Qo Qnom Qult

Flow PCSE/hr

Speed Flow Model

Qo = the flow below which traffic interactions are negligible Qnom = nominal capacity Qult = ultimate capacity for stable flow Snom = speed at nominal capacity (0.85 * minimum free speed) Sult = speed at ultimate capacity S1, S2, S3. = free flow speeds of different vehicle types Speed-Flow Model Parameters by Road Type
Road Type Single Lane Road Intermediate Road Two Lane Road Wide Two Lane Road Four Lane Road Width (m) < 4.0 4.0 to 5.5 5.5 to 9.0 9.0 to 12.0 >12.0 Qo/ Qult 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.4 Qnom/ Qult Qult (PCSE/h/lane) 0.70 600 0.70 900 0.90 1400 0.90 1600 0.95 2000 Sult (km/h) 10 20 25 30 40

Speed Flow Types

Speed (km/hr)

Four Lane
Wide Two Lane

Two Lane

Flow veh/hr

Roadside Friction

Congestion Modelling
Uncongested

Congested

0 Acceleration in m/s/s

Effects of Speed Fluctuations (Acceleration Noise)

Vehicle interaction due to: volume - capacity roadside friction non-motorised traffic road roughness driver behaviour & road geometry Affects fuel consumption & operating costs

dFUEL Values by Acceleration Noise and Vehicle Speed

Vehicle Class Car Speed (km/hr) 10 15 20 . . 90 95 100 10 15 20 . 10 15 . 0.05 Acceleration Noice in m/s2 0.10 . . 0.70 0.0063 0.0701 0.0095 0.1386 0.0083 0.1813 0.75

0.1092 0.1133 0.1255

0.1959 0.1877 0.1890

Bus

Truck

Fuel Model
Replaced HDMIII Brazil model with one based on ARRB ARFCOM model Predicts fuel use as function of power usage
TRACTIVE FORCES Rolling, air, inertia, grade and cornering resistance ACCESSORIES Cooling fan, power steering, air conditioner, alternator, etc. INTERNAL ENGINE FRICTION

DRIVE - TRAIN INEFFICIENCIES

TOTAL POWER

ENGINE FUEL EFFICIENCY FACTOR

ESTIMATED FUEL CONSUMPTION

Parts and Labor Costs

Usually largest single component of VOC Function of new vehicle price and maintenance labor cost Function of vehicle age (service life) Function of roughness

Capital Costs
Comprised of depreciation and interest costs Depreciation based on a straight line depreciation function of the service life HDM-4 uses Optimal Life method or constant service life method Optimal life method varies service life as a function of roughness

Roughness on Depreciation
7 PC 6 HT 5 AT LB LT MT

Depreciation Cost in Baht/km .

MB

HB

MC

0 0 5 10 Roughness in IRI m/km 15 20 25

Road Safety
HDM-4 does not predict accident rates User defines a series of look-up tables of accident rates The rates are broad, macro descriptions relating accidents to a particular set of road attributes
Fatal Injury Damage only

Accident Rates Examples

Number per 100 million vehicle-km
South Africa Economic Evaluation Manual Gravel Road Accidents w Fatality w Injury w Damage Canada British Columbia Economic Evaluation Manual 230.0 100% 25.0 39.0 166.0 11% 17% 72% 2 Lane Paved Road Accidents w Fatality w Injury w Damage 100.0 8.0 27.0 65.0 100% 8% 27% 65% 4 Lane Freeway Accidents w Fatality w Injury w Damage 50.0 100% 0.5 16.2 33.4 1% 32% 67%

2 Lane Paved Road Accidents w Fatality w Injury w Damage 121.0 100% 1.9 36.3 82.8 2% 30% 68%

4 Lane Divided Expressway Accidents w Fatality w Injury w Damage 93.0 1.1 30.0 61.8 100% 1% 32% 67%

- South Africa: Economic Warrants for Surfacing Roads, 1989, SABITA and CSIR - Canada : The Economic Appraisal of Highway Investment Guidebook, 1992, Ministry of Transportation

Non-Motorised Transport

NMT User Costs and Benefits

Travel speed and time Wear and tear of some NMT vehicles and components Degree of conflicts with MT traffic Accident rates Energy consumption

Emissions Model
Estimate quantities of pollutants produced as a function of:
Road characteristics Traffic volume/congestion Vehicle technology Fuel consumption Hydrocarbon Carbon monoxide Nitrous oxides Sulphur dioxide Carbon dioxide Particulates Lead

HDM Series Volume 4