What is Motivation?

Motivation The processes that account for an individuals intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. Key Elements 1. Intensity: how hard a person tries 2. Direction: toward beneficial goal 3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Motivation and Performance

Environment

Motivation

Effort

Performance

Ability

3 Major Types of Motivation Theories

Content Theories of Motivation
WHAT motivates us

Process Theories of Motivation

WHY and HOW motivation occurs

Reinforcement Theory
HOW outcomes influence behaviors

 Content Perspectives

Content Perspectives on Motivation

Approaches to motivation that try to answer the question, What factors in the workplace motivate people?

Content Perspectives of Motivation

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Aldefers ERG Theory McGregorys Theory X and Theory Y Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory McClellands Achievement, Power, and Affiliation Needs

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

NEEDS General Examples SelfAchievement actualization Status Friendship Stability Food Esteem Belongingness Security Physiology Challenging job Job title Friends at work Pension plan Base salary Organizational Examples

Assumptions of Maslows Hierarchy Movement up the Pyramid

Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied. Individuals therefore must move up the hierarchy in order Maslow Application: A homeless person will not be motivated to meditate!

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

A Content Perspective
What factor or factors motivate people Weakness of Theory Five levels of need are not always present Order is not always the same Cultural differences Needs Hierarchy in Chinaan example: Belonging Physiological Safety Self actualizing in service to society

Alderfers ERG Theory

A Content Perspective
Existence needs

Physiological
Relatedness needs

How one individual relates to his/her social environment

Growth needs

Achievement and self actualization

Alderfers ERG Theory

A Content Perspective
Satisfaction-Progression Frustration-Regression

Growth Needs
Relatedness Needs Existence Needs

Content Theories
McGregors Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X
Assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, avoid responsibility, and require close supervision.

Theory Y
Assumes that workers can exercise self-direction, desire responsibility, and like to work.

Motivation is maximized by participative decision making, interesting jobs, and good group relations.

Content Theories
Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are created by different factors.
Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental) factors that create job dissatisfaction. Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that create job satisfaction.

Attempted to explain why job satisfaction does not result in increased performance.
The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather no satisfaction.

Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Contrasting Views of SatisfactionDissatisfaction

McClellands Needs Theory

Three-Needs Theory
There are three major acquired needs that are major motives in work. Need for achievement (nAch)
The drive to excel and succeed

Need for power (nPow)

The need to influence the behavior of others

Need of affiliation (nAff)

The desire for interpersonal relationships

Pictures Used for Assessing Levels of nAch, nAff, and nPow

Process Perspectives of Motivation

Why people choose certain behavioral

options to satisfy their needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained their goals. Process perspectives of Motivation
Goal Setting Theory Equity Theory Expectancy Theory

Goal-Setting Theory
A Process Perspective
Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.

Difficulty
Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.

Specificity
Clarity and precision of the goal.

Goal Achievement Depends on:

Acceptance
Extent to which persons accept a goal as their own.

Commitment
Extent to which an individual is personally interested in reaching a goal.

Equity Theory: A Process Perspective

Individuals equate value of rewards to effort and

compare it to other people.

outcomes(self) inputs (self) = outcomes (other) inputs (other)

Equity Inputs/Outcomes Comparison of self with others

Motivation to maintain current situation Ways to reduce inequity Change inputs Change outcomes Alter perceptions of self Alter perceptions of other Leave situation Change comparisons

Inequity

Justice and Equity Theory

Three types of Justice

Distributive Justice Perceived fairness of the outcome (the final distribution). Who got what? Procedural Justice The perceived fairness of the process used to determine the outcome (the final distribution). How was who gets what decided?

Interactional Justice The degree to which one is treated with dignity and respect. Was I treated well?

Expectancy Theory The Basic Idea

People tend to prefer certain goals, or outcomes, over others. They anticipate experiencing feelings of satisfaction should such a preferred outcome be achieved. Basically, people are motivated to behave in ways that produce valued outcomes.

Expectancy Theory
A Process Perspective
Motivation depends on how much we want

something and how likely we are to get it Elements

Effort to Performance Expectancy (E) is the probability that effort will lead to performance. Performance to Outcome Expectancy (I) is the perception that performance leads to an outcome. Outcome is the consequence or reward for performance. Valence (V) is how much a particular outcome is valued.

Expectancy Theory
A Process Perspective

M=ExIxV
For motivated behavior to occur:
Effort-to-performance must be greater than 0 Performance-to-outcome must be greater than 0 Sum of valences must be greater than 0*

The Expectancy Model of Motivation

Outcome Valence

Environment

Outcome

Valence

Motivation

Effort

Performance

Outcome

Valence

Ability

Outcome

Valence

Outcome

Valence

A General Model of Vrooms Expectancy Theory

Outcome 1

High Effort
Expectancy What are my chances of reaching my performance goal if I work hard? Decision to Exert Effort Expectancy What are my chances of reaching my performance goal if I slack off?

Performance Goal

Outcome 2
Outcome 3

Instrumentality What are my chances of getting various outcomes if I achieve my performance goal?

Valence How much do I value these outcomes?

Outcome 1
Low Effort Performance Goal Outcome 2 Outcome 3

Reinforcement Theory
Argues that behavior is a function of its consequences.

Assumptions: Behavior is environmentally caused. Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences. Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

Chapter

SEVEN

Motivation: From Concepts to Applications

Job Design Theory

Job Characteristics Model Identifies five job characteristics and their relationship to personal and work outcomes. Characteristics: 1. Skill variety 2. Task identity

3. Task significance
4. Autonomy 5. Feedback

Job Design Theory (contd)

Job Characteristics Model
Jobs with skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and for which feedback of results is given, directly affect three psychological states of employees:
Knowledge of results Meaningfulness of work

Personal feelings of responsibility for results

Increases in these psychological states result in increased motivation, performance, and job satisfaction.

The Job Characteristics Model

Source: J.R. Hackman and G.R. Oldham, Work Design (excerpted from pp. 7880). 1980 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc. Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc.

E X H I B I T 71

Job Design Theory (contd)

Skill Variety The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities (how may different skills are used in a given day, week, month?). Task Identity The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work (from beginning to end).

Task Significance
The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people.

Job Design Theory (contd)

Autonomy
The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. Feedback The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.

Examples of High and Low Job Characteristics

Characteristics Examples

Skill Variety High variety The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds engines, does body work, and interacts with customers Low variety A bodyshop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day Task Identity High identity A cabinetmaker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds the object, and finishes it to perfection Low identity A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe to make table legs Task Significance High significance Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit Low significance Sweeping hospital floors Autonomy High autonomy A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day, and decides on the best techniques for a particular installation Low autonomy A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a routine, highly specified procedure Feedback High feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then tests it to determine if it operates properly Low feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then routes it to a quality control inspector who tests and adjusts it Prentice Hall, 2003 34

Computing a Motivating Potential Score

People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive. Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.