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Feedback Controllers

On-off Controllers
Simple
Cheap
Used In residential heating and domestic refrigerators
Limited use in process control due to continuous
cycling of controlled variable excessive wear
on control valve.

Examples
Batch process control (PLC = programmable logic controller)
Solenoid in home heating unit
Sprinkler systems
Cruise control?

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On-Off Controllers
Synonyms:
two-position or bang-bang controllers.
Controller output has two possible values.
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e = error =
set point measured variable

Practical case (dead band)
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system never reaches steady-state
= tolerance
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Three Mode (PID) Controller
Proportional
Integral
Derivative
Proportional Control
Define an error signal, e, by e = Y
sp
Y
m
where
Y
sp
= set point
Y
m
= measured value of the controlled variable
(or equivalent signal from transmitter)

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Since signals are time varying,
e(t) = Y
sp
(t) - Y
m
(t)
n.b. Watch units!!

For proportional control:
where,
p(t) = controller output
= bias value (adjustable)
K
c
= controller gain (dimensionless, adjustable)
p - p = p e(t) K + p = p(t)
c
'
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p
Figures 8.4, 8.5
in Text
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Standards (ISO/ISA)

3 15 psi
4 - 20 ma
0 10 VDC
- Proportional Band, PB


- Reverse or Direct Acting Controller
- K
c
can be made positive or negative
- Recall for proportional FB control:


or

- Direct-Acting (K
c
< 0)
output increases as input increases"
p(t) Y
m
(t)

- Reverse-Acting (K
c
> 0)
output increases as input decreases"
c
K
% 100
PB
e(t) K + p = p(t)
c
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| | ) t ( Y ) t ( Y K p ) t ( p
m sp c
+ =
Example 2: Flow Control Loop
Assume FT is direct-acting. Select sign of K
c
so
that K
c
K
v
> 0

1.) Air-to-open (fail close) valve ==> ?
2.) Air-to-close (fail open) valve ==> ?

Consequences of wrong controller action??
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- Transfer Function for Proportional Control:
Let
Then controller input/output relation can written as

Take Laplace transform of each side,

or


INTEGRAL CONTROL ACTION
Synonyms: "reset", "floating control"


t
I
reset time (or integral time) - adjustable
p - p(t) (t) p
'
e(t) K (t) p
c

'
E(s) K (s) P
c

'
c
K
E(s)
(s) P

'
s
1
E(s)
(s) P
t d ) t ( e
1
p ) t ( p
I
t
0 I
t
=
'
' '
t
+ =
}
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(

' '
t
+ + =
}
t
0
I
c
t d ) t ( e
1
) t ( e K p ) t ( p
Proportional-Integral (PI) Control
Response to unit step change in e:
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integral provides memory of e
most popular controller
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Integral action eliminates steady-state error
(i.e., offset) Why??? e = 0 p is changing with
time until e = 0, where p reaches steady state.
|
|
.
|

\
|
t
+ =
'
s
1
1 K
E(s)
(s) P
I
c
Transfer function for PI control
Derivative Control Action
- Ideal derivative action


- Used to improve dynamic response of the
controlled variable
- Derivative kick (use -dy
m
/dt )
- Use alone?

- Some controllers are calibrated in 1/t
I

("repeats per minute") instead of t
I
.
p
dt
de
p ) t ( p
D
t + =
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- For PI controllers, is not adjustable.
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Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control
Now we consider the combination of the proportional, integral,
and derivative control modes as a PID controller.
Many variations of PID control are used in practice.
Next, we consider the three most common forms.
Parallel Form of PI D Control
The parallel form of the PID control algorithm (without a
derivative filter) is given by
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
0
1
* * (8-13)

t
c D
I
de t
p t p K e t e t dt
dt
(
= + + +
(

}
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The corresponding transfer function is:
( )
( )
1
1 (8-14)

c D
I
P s
K s
E s s
'
(
= + +
(

( )
( )
1 1
(8-15)
1
I D
c
I D
P s
s s
K
E s s s
'
| || |
+ +
=
| |
+
\ .\ .
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Expanded Form of PI D Control
In addition to the well-known series and parallel forms, the
expanded form of PID control in Eq. 8-16 is sometimes used:
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
0
* * (8-16)
t
c I D
de t
p t p K e t K e t dt K
dt
= + + +
}
Features of PID Controllers
Elimination of Derivative and Proportional Kick
One disadvantage of the previous PID controllers is that a
sudden change in set point (and hence the error, e) will cause the
derivative term momentarily to become very large and thus
provide a derivative kick to the final control element.
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Automatic and Manual Control Modes
Automatic Mode
Controller output, p(t), depends on e(t), controller
constants, and type of controller used.
( PI vs. PID etc.)
- Manual Mode
Controller output, p(t), is adjusted manually.
- Manual Mode is very useful when unusual
conditions exist:
plant start-up
plant shut-down
emergencies
Percentage of controllers "on manual ??
(30% in 2001, Honeywell survey)
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Digital PID Controller




finite difference approximation

where,
= the sampling period (the time between
successive samples of the controlled variable)
= controller output at the nth sampling
instant, n=1,2,
= error at the nth sampling unit

velocity form - see Equation (8-19)
(Ap
n
)- incremental change
( )
1
1
1
n
D
n c n k n n
k
I
D
I
t
p p K e e e e
t
t
t

=
(
(
A
= + + +
(
A
(

n
p
n
e
t A
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Typical Response of Feedback Control Systems
Consider response of a controlled system after a
sustained disturbance occurs (e.g., step change in
disturbance variable); y > 0 is off-spec.
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No control
(Kc=0) Increasing K
C
Time
y
0
Figure 8.13 Proportional control: effect of Controller gain

Increasing t
D
Time
y
0
Figure 8.15 PID control: effect of derivative time
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integral action ~
/
c I
K t


Increasing t
I
Time
(a)
y
0


Increasing K
C
Time
(b)
y
0
Figure 8.14 Proportional-integral control: (a) effect of integral time, (b) effect of controller gain
Summary of the Characteristics of the Most
Commonly Used Controller Modes
1. Two Position:
Inexpensive.
Extremely simple.
2. Proportional:
Simple.
Inherently stable when properly tuned.
Easy to tune.
Experiences offset at steady state. (OK for level
control)
3. Proportional plus integral:
No offset.
Better dynamic response than reset alone.
Possibilities exist for instability due to lag
introduced.
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4. Proportional plus derivative:
Stable.
Less offset than proportional alone (use of
higher gain possible).
Reduces lags, i.e., more rapid response.
5. Proportional plus integral plus derivative:
Most complex
Rapid response
No offset.
Best control if properly tuned.
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Example 3: Liquid Level Control
Control valves are air-to-open
Level transmitters are direct acting
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Question:
1. Type of controller action? Select K
c
so that
0
c v p
K K K >
(a) air-to-open valve: sign of K
v
?
(b) sign of process gain?
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