Getting Started With Oracle SQL

3
Getting Started with Oracle SQL
Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

Objectives
After completing this lesson, you should be able to do

the following:
• Execute a SELECT statement
• Implement pseudocolumns in SQL
• Utilize the different types of operators, conditions,
expressions, and functions in SQL
• Convert between data types
• Describe how SQL treats NULLs
3-2 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

Retrieving Data by Using the SELECT
Statement
• SELECT identifies which columns are to be

displayed.
• FROM identifies which table contains the columns.
• WHERE specifies how the rows are restricted.
SELECT [DISTINCT] {*, column [alias], expr...}

FROM table(s)
[WHERE condition(s)]
[GROUP BY expr [, expr]...]
[HAVING condition]
[ORDER BY {column, expr, alias} [ASC|DESC]];

Restricting Output by Using the WHERE
Clause
Syntax:
SELECT [DISTINCT] {*, | column [alias], | expr...}
FROM table(s)
[WHERE condition(s)]
Example:
SELECT last_name, job_id, hire_date, salary
FROM employees
WHERE job_id = 'ST_CLERK' AND hire_date > '01-Jan-00'
OR salary > 14000;

Defining Null
• NULL represents a value that is unavailable,

unassigned, unknown, or inapplicable.
• NULL is not the same as zero or a blank space.
SELECT department_id, employee_id,
last_name, job_id, salary, commission_pct
FROM employees
WHERE job_id in ('ST_CLERK', 'SA_MAN')
AND employee_id > 142;

Using Pseudocolumns
SELECT ROWID, last_name

FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 20;
Not found

Using Pseudocolumns
• ROWID returns a row’s address:
SELECT ROWID, last_name

FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 20;
• ROWNUM returns a number indicating the order in

which the row is selected:
SELECT rownum, last_name, job_id, manager_id

FROM employees
WHERE rownum < 5;

Manipulating Data Items by Using
Operators
Operator Meaning
LIKE Matches a character pattern
IS NULL Is a null
BETWEEN Is between two values (inclusive)
...AND...
IN (set) Matches any of a list of values
!= Is not equal to (VAX, UNIX, PC)
^=, := Is not equal to (IBM)
<> Is not equal to (all systems)
NOT LIKE Is not like comparison string
IS NOT NULL Is not a null

Calculating Using Arithmetic Expressions
• Create expressions on NUMBER and DATE data by

using arithmetic operators:
Operator Description Priority
* Multiply 1
/ Divide 1
+ Add 2
– Subtract 2
• Operators of the same priority are evaluated from

left to right.
• Parentheses are used to force prioritized
evaluation and to clarify statements.

Manipulating Strings by Using the
Concatenation Operator
SELECT last_name||' works as '||job_id AS "Employees"

FROM employees
WHERE employee_id > 200;

Combining Results by Using Set Operators
A B
UNION
UNION ALL
A B A B
INTERSECT
A B
MINUS

Using the UNION Operator
Display the current and previous job details of all

employees, displaying each combination of employee
and job ID only once:
SELECT employee_id, job_id
FROM employees
UNION
SELECT employee_id, job_id
FROM job_history;

Using the UNION Operator
SELECT employee_id, job_id, department_id

FROM employees
UNION
SELECT employee_id, job_id, department_id
FROM job_history;

Using Expressions
• Simple expression:
– Column
– Pseudocolumn
– Constant
– Sequence number
– NULL
• Compound expression: A combination of other
expressions

Conditional Querying Using the CASE
Expression
Facilitates conditional queries by doing the work of

an IF-THEN-ELSE statement:
CASE expr WHEN comparison_expr1 THEN return_expr1
[WHEN comparison_expr2 THEN return_expr2
WHEN comparison_exprn THEN return_exprn
ELSE else_expr]
END
Example:
SELECT last_name, job_id, salary,
CASE job_id WHEN 'IT_PROG' THEN 1.10*salary
WHEN 'ST_CLERK' THEN 1.15*salary
WHEN 'SA_REP' THEN 1.20*salary
ELSE salary END "REVISED_SALARY"
FROM employees;

Using Conditions
Condition Description
EXISTS Tests for existence of rows in a subquery
IN Tests a value for membership in a list of values or

subquery
IS EMPTY Tests whether a specified nested table is empty,

regardless of whether any elements of the
collection are NULL

Understanding Functions
Input Function Output
Function
arg 1
performs the
operation.
arg 2 Result
value
arg n

Two Types of SQL Functions
Function
Single-row Multiple-row
functions functions

Manipulating Data Items Using Single-Row
Functions
Character
General Number
Single-row
functions
Conversion Datetime
Date

Using Numeric Functions
• ROUND: Rounds a value to a specified decimal

– ROUND(45.926, 2) 45.93
• TRUNC: Truncates a value to a specified decimal
– TRUNC(45.926, 2) 45.92
• MOD: Returns remainder of division
– MOD(1600, 300) 100
• ABS: Returns the absolute value of the argument
– ABS(–15) 15
• SIGN: Returns –1 or 1 based on the argument
– SIGN(-15) –1

Using the ROUND and TRUNC Functions
SELECT ROUND(45.923, 2), ROUND(45.923, -1),

ROUND(45.923, 0)
FROM dual;
SELECT TRUNC(45.923, 2), TRUNC(45.923, -1),

TRUNC(45.923,0)
FROM dual;

Practice 3: Overview of Part 1
This practice covers the following topics:

• Executing a SELECT statement
• Implementing pseudocolumns in SQL
• Utilizing the different types of operators,
conditions, expressions, and functions in SQL

Understanding Data Types
Data Type Description
VARCHAR2(size) Variable-length character data
CHAR(size) Fixed-length character data
NUMBER(p,s) Variable-length numeric data
DATE Date and time values
LONG Variable-length character data, up to
2 GB
CLOB Character data, up to 128 TB
RAW and LONG RAW Raw binary data
BLOB Binary data, up to 128 TB
BFILE Binary data stored in an external file,
up to 128 TB
ROWID A 64-base number representing the
unique address of a row in its table

Using Datetime Data Types
In Oracle SQL, you can include the time zone in your

date and time data, and provide support for fractional
seconds.
Three additional data types:
• TIMESTAMP
• TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE (TSTZ)
• TIMESTAMP WITH LOCAL TIME ZONE (TSLTZ)
Daylight savings support for datetime data types is
provided.

Using Datetime Data Types
• TIMESTAMP data type:
TIMESTAMP[(fractional_seconds_precision)]
• TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE data type:

WITH TIME ZONE
• TIMESTAMP WITH LOCAL TIME ZONE data type:

WITH LOCAL TIME ZONE

Using INTERVAL Data Types
• INTERVAL YEAR TO MONTH stores a period of time

using the YEAR and MONTH datetime fields.
INTERVAL YEAR [(year_precision)] TO MONTH
• INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND stores a period of time

in terms of days, hours, minutes, and seconds.
INTERVAL DAY [(day_precision)]

TO SECOND [(fractional_seconds_precision)]

Converting Between Data Types
• Data type conversion can be implicit or explicit.

• Implicit data type conversion: For assignments,
the Oracle server can automatically convert the
following:
From To
VARCHAR2 or CHAR NUMBER or DATE
NUMBER VARCHAR2
DATE VARCHAR2

Converting Data Types Explicitly
TO_NUMBER TO_DATE
NUMBER CHARACTER DATE
TO_CHAR TO_CHAR

Displaying a Date in a Specific Format
The format model:

• Must be enclosed in single quotation marks and is
case sensitive
• Can include any valid date format element
• Has an fm element to remove padded blanks or
suppress leading zeros
• Is separated from the date value by a comma
TO_CHAR(date, 'fmt')

Date Format Model Elements
YYYY Full year in numbers

YEAR Year spelled out
MM Two-digit value for month
MONTH Full name of the month
DY Three-letter abbreviation of the
day of the week
DAY Full name of the day

Date Format Model Elements
• Use time elements to format the time portion of the

date:
HH24:MI:SS AM 15:45:32 p.m.
• Add character strings by enclosing them in double

quotation marks:
DD "of" MONTH 12 of OCTOBER
• Use number suffixes to spell out numbers:

ddspth fourteenth

Using the TO_CHAR Function
with Dates and Numbers
SELECT last_name,
TO_CHAR(hire_date, 'fmDD Month YYYY') HIREDATE
FROM employees
WHERE employee_id > 200;
SELECT TO_CHAR(salary,'$99,999') SALARY

FROM employees
WHERE last_name = 'Kochhar';

Using the TO_NUMBER and TO_DATE
Functions
• To convert a character string to a number format,

use the TO_NUMBER function:
TO_NUMBER(char[, 'fmt'])
• To convert a character string to a date format, use

the TO_DATE function:
TO_DATE(char[, 'fmt'])

Summary
In this lesson, you should have learned how to:

• Execute a SELECT statement
• Implement pseudocolumns in SQL
• Utilize the different types of operators, conditions,
expressions, and functions in SQL
• Convert between data types
• Describe how SQL treats NULLs

Practice 3: Overview of Part 2
This practice covers the following topics:

• Converting between data types
• Describing how SQL treats NULLs


Getting Started With Oracle SQL

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3

Getting Started with Oracle SQL

Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

After completing this lesson, you should be able to do

3-2 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

• SELECT identifies which columns are to be

SELECT [DISTINCT] {*, column [alias], expr...}

3-3 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

3-5 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

• NULL represents a value that is unavailable,

3-7 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

SELECT ROWID, last_name

3-8 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

• ROWID returns a row’s address:

SELECT ROWID, last_name

• ROWNUM returns a number indicating the order in

SELECT rownum, last_name, job_id, manager_id

3-9 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

3-11 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

• Create expressions on NUMBER and DATE data by

• Operators of the same priority are evaluated from

3-13 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

SELECT last_name||' works as '||job_id AS "Employees"

3-14 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

3-15 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

Display the current and previous job details of all

3-16 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

SELECT employee_id, job_id, department_id

3-17 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

3-18 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

Facilitates conditional queries by doing the work of

3-19 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

EXISTS Tests for existence of rows in a subquery

IN Tests a value for membership in a list of values or

IS EMPTY Tests whether a specified nested table is empty,

3-21 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

Input Function Output

3-22 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

3-23 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

3-24 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

• ROUND: Rounds a value to a specified decimal

3-26 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

SELECT ROUND(45.923, 2), ROUND(45.923, -1),

SELECT TRUNC(45.923, 2), TRUNC(45.923, -1),

3-27 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

This practice covers the following topics:

3-29 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

3-30 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

In Oracle SQL, you can include the time zone in your

3-33 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

• TIMESTAMP data type:

• TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE data type:

• TIMESTAMP WITH LOCAL TIME ZONE data type:

3-35 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

• INTERVAL YEAR TO MONTH stores a period of time

INTERVAL YEAR [(year_precision)] TO MONTH

• INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND stores a period of time

INTERVAL DAY [(day_precision)]

3-37 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

• Data type conversion can be implicit or explicit.

3-40 Copyright © 2004, Oracle. All rights reserved.

NUMBER CHARACTER DATE