CELLS AND ORGANS OF

THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

M.KANNAN M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D.,
DEPARTMENT OF MICROBIOLOGY
V.H.N.S.N.COLLEGE, VIRUDHUNAGAR
 FUNCTIONS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

 Defense against infections

 Recognition and protective response to
newly introduced substances such as
proteins and to tissue grafts
 Defense against tumors
 Preservation of genetic integrity of the
individual
 TWO TYPES OF IMMUNITY

Nonspecific (innate)
•Physical and chemical
agents
•Lysozyme
•Acute phase proteins Specific (adaptive)
•Complement system •Antibodies
•Cytokines (chemokines) (B lymphocytes)
•Phagocytes (granulocytes, •T lymphocytes
macrophages)
•Natural killer (NK) cells
•Dendritic cells
•Pattern recognition receptors
(PRR)
 Major differences between innate
and acquired immunity (acc. to U.
Koedel & W Pfister 2005)
Innate immune Acquired immune
system system
• Immediate maximal • Lag time (3-4 days) between
response exposure and max.
• No immunological memory response
• Not antigen specific • Immunological memory
• Receptors: germ line • Antigen specific
encoded, • Receptors: generated
• In almost all multicellular somatically,
organisms, • Only in vertebrates,
• Recognition of conserved • Recognition of details of
molecular patterns, molecular structure,
• Perfect self/non-self • Imperfect self/non-self
discrimination discrimination,
• Only hundreds of different • Over 100 000 000 000
 THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

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Hematopoiesis
Cells of the immune system
Hematopoiesi
s
• All blood cells arise from a type of cell
called the hematopoiesis stem cell(HSC).
• Stem cells are cells that can differentiate
into other cell types, they are self-
renewing- they maintain their population
level by cell division.
• In humans, hematopoiesis, the formation
abnd development of red blood cells,
begins in the embryonic yolk sac during
the first weeks of development.
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Hematopoie
sis

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 Regulation of
Hematopoiesis
• Hematopoiesis is a continuous
process that generally maintains a
steady state in which the production
of mature blood cells equals their
loss (principally from aging).
• The average erythrocyte has a life
span of 120 days before it is
phagocytosed abd digested by
macrophages in the spleen.
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 Programmed cell death
• Cells undergoing programmed cell death
often exhibit distinctive morphologic
changes, collectively referred to as
apoptosis.

• These changes include a pronounced

decrease in cell volume, modification of
the cytoskelton to result in membrane
blebbing, a condensation of the chromatin
and degradation of the DNA into smaller
fragments. 10
 Apoptosi
s

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 Lymphoid cells
• Lymphocytes constitute 20% - 40%
of the body’s white blood cells and
99% of the cells in the lymph.
• There are approxiamately 1011
(range depending on body size and
age: ~1010 – 1012) lymphocytes in the
human body.
• The lymphocytes can be broadly
subdivided into three populations-B-
cells, T-cells and null cells-on the
basis of function and cell membrane
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 Lymphocytes
• Produce antibodies
• B-cells mature in bone marrow then
concentrate in lymph nodes and
spleen
• T-cells mature in thymus
• B and T cells mature then circulate in
the blood and lymph
• Circulation ensures they come into
contact with pathogens and each
other
 B -Lymphocytes
• There are c.10 million different B-
lymphocytes, each of which make a
different antibody.
• The huge variety is caused by genes
coding for abs changing slightly
during development.
• There are a small group of clones of
each type of B-lymphocyte
 B -Lymphocytes
• At the clone stage antibodies do not leave
the B-cells.
• The abs are embedded in the plasma
membrane of the cell and are
called antibody receptors.
• When the receptors in the membrane
recognise and antigen on the surface of
the pathogen the B-cell divides rapidly.
• The antigens are presented to the B-cells
by macrophages
B -Lymphocytes
 B -Lymphocytes
• Some activated B cells  PLASMA
CELLS these produce lots of
antibodies, < 1000/sec
• The antibodies travel to the blood,
lymph, lining of gut and lungs.
• The number of plasma cells goes
down after a few weeks
• Antibodies stay in the blood longer
but eventually their numbers go
down too.
 B -Lymphocytes
• Some activated B cells  MEMORY
CELLS.
• Memory cells divide rapidly as soon
as the antigen is reintroduced.
• There are many more memory cells
than there were clone cells.
• When the pathogen/infection infects
again it is destroyed before any
symptoms show.
 Null Cells

• Do Not Express Classical Lymphocyte

Markers

• Predominantly NK Cells (CD56)

• Eliminate Tumor Cells and Virally Infected

Cells

• Using CD16 They Can Carry Out ADCC

 Mononuclear Cells
Mononuclear Cells
• Monocytes in Blood, MØ in Tissues
– Monocytes 5-10 times smaller than MØ
• MØ Increases Phagocytic Ability
• Secretes cytokines and Produces
Hydrolytic Enzymes
• Named Based on Tissue They Reside
– Alveolar (lungs), Kupffer (liver), Microglial
(brain), Osteoclasts (bone)
• Activated By Phagocytosis or Cytokines
(IFNα)
• Antigen Presenting Capacity Thru MHC II
 Macrophages
• Larger than neutrophils.
• Found in the organs, not the blood.
• Made in bone marrow as monocytes,
called macrophages once they reach
organs.
• Long lived
• Initiate immune responses as they
display antigens from the pathogens
to the lymphocytes.
Macrophages
Monocyte vs MØ
MØ Effective APC
MØ Capturing Bacteria
 Dendritic Cells
• Professional APCs
• Several Types
– Langerhans (LC) found in skin
– Circuilating DCs
• Myeloid (MDC1 and MDC2)
• Plasmacytoid
• Interstitial DCs, populate organs such as
heart, lungs, liver, intestines
• Interdigitating DCs, T-cell areas of
lymph nodes and Thymic medulla
 Dendritic Cells
• Scarce Cell Type
• Discovered in 1972
• Early 90s Using GM-CSF/IL4 and Later
flt-3 limitation Was Overcome
• Intense Area of Research
• Seemed Promising for Tumor
Treatment
• Maybe Better for Tolerance
Dendritic Cells

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Developmental Pathway of
DCs
 Follicular DCs
• Do Not Express MHC II Molecules
• Found in Lymph Follicles (Rich in B
Cell)
• Express FcR For Antibodies and
Complement
• Ag-Ab Complex Shown To Last Very
Long (weeks to months)
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Phagocytosis
 Phagocytosis
• If cells are under attack they release
histamine.
• Histamine plus chemicals from pathogens
mean neutrophils are attracted to the site
of attack.
• Pathogens are attached to antibodies and
neutrophils have antibody receptors.
• Enodcytosis of neutrophil membrane 
phagocytic vacuole.
• Lysosomes attach to phagocytic vacuole
 pathogen digested by proteases
 Organs of the immune
system
• A number of morphologically and
functionally diverse organs and tissues
have various functions in the development
of immune responses.
• These can be distinguished by function as
the primary and secondary lymphoid
organs.
• The thymus and bone marrow are the
primary(or central) lymphoid organs,
where maturation of lymphocytestakes
place. 52
• The lymph nodes, spleen, and various
mucosal-associated lymphoid tissues
(MALT) such as gut-associated
lymphoid tissue (GALT) are the
secondary (or peripheral) lymphoid
organs, which trap antigen and
provide sites for mature lymphocytes
to interact with that antigen.

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Organs of the
immune
system

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 Thymus

• Structure
– Gross
• Bi-lobed
• Lies above heart
– Microscopic
• Capsular
• Lobules with outer cortex and inner
medulla
 Thymus

• Function
– Takes in immature T cells and puts out
mature (immunocompetent) T cells
– Increased diversity of T cells
– T cell selection
 Thymus

• T cell selection
– Based on MHC/Ag complex recognition
• Recognize MHC/Non self AG complexes
• Recognize MHC/Self Ag complexes
• Do not recognize MHC/Ag complexes

• Athymic condition
– Natural
– Other
 Bone marrow

• Structure
– Microscopic
• Less well defined than thymus
• Role of stromal cells

• Function
– Hematopoiesis
– B cell maturation
– B cell selection
– Puts out mature, naive B cells
 Lymph Nodes

• Structure
– Gross
• Bean-shaped structures
• Drains major segments of lymphatic
system
 Lymph Nodes

• Structure
– Microscopic
• Major cell types
– Lymphocytes
– Macrophages
– Dendritic cells
• Cortex/paracortex/medulla
• Follicles
– Primary
– Secondary
 Lymph Nodes

• Function
– 1st line of response to antigens
– Secondary follicle (Germinal center) is site of B
cell proliferation, mutation, differentiation
– Specificity is high
– >90% of B cells die through apoptosis
– After Ag stimualtion lymphocyte numbers up by
50X in efferent lymphatic vessel
– Lympadenopathy
 Spleen
• Structure
– Gross
• Ovoid organ in upper left quadrant of abdomen
– Microscopic
• Compartmentalized
– Red pulp
– White pulp
• Periarticualr lymphoid sheath
– Site of Ag presentation
• Major cell types
– Lymphocytes
– Macrophages
– Dendritic cells
– RBCs
 Spleen

• Function
– Filters out older RBCs
– Responds to Ag in circulatory system
– Produces activated B cells

• Splenectomy
 Tonsils
• Follicular structure
• Contains lymphocytes, macrophages,
mast cells
• Germinal centers appear in response
to Ag
• Protective role in URI
 Appendix

• Associated with intestines

• Responds to Ag
• Role in GI immune response
 MALT
• Lymphoid tissues below epithelium
• Presence of B cells
• Ag presented through unique cell (M
cell)
• Preferentially responds with IgA
antibody