MICROPROCESSORS

OFFICIAL COURSEWARE

Microprocessors
The microprocessor is the major component of any system board (the Brain). It executes software instructions and carries out arithmetic operations for the system. These ICs can take on a number of different package styles depending on their vintage and manufacturer. PC manufacturers mount microprocessors in sockets so that they can be replaced easily. This allows a failed microprocessor to simply be exchanged with a working unit. In older systems, the microprocessors had to be forcibly removed from the socket using an IC extractor tool. As the typical microprocessors pin count increased, special ZERO INSERTION FORCE (ZIF) sockets were implemented that allowed the microprocessor to be set in the socket without force and them clamped in place.

Microprocessors

Microprocessors

Microprocessors

Microprocessor Evolution
Since the first PC came out in 1981, PC processor evolution has concentrated on four main areas: Increasing transistor count and density Increasing clock cycling speeds Increasing the size of internal registers (bits) Increasing the number of cores in a single chip

Microprocessors
Processors can be identified by two main parameters: How wide they are How fast they are Speed is counted in MHz and GHz the faster the better. The width of a processor are classified into three(3) main specifications.

Specifications expressed in width

Internal Registers Data input and output Bus Memory Address Bus

Internal Registers
The size of the internal registers indicate how much information the processor can operate on at one time and how it moves data around internally within the chip. This is also referred to as the internal data bus. The register size is essentially the same as the internal data bus.

A register is a holding cell within a processor. The register size also describe the type of software or commands and instructions a chip can run. Ex. processors with 32bit registers can run 32bit instructions that are processing 32bit chunks of data. Modern processors like the Pentium and Athlon chips has a 32bit register size, the new Itanium chip uses a 64bit internal register size.

Data Input and Output Bus

A common way to describe a processor is by the speed at which it runs and the width of the processors external data bus. This defines the amount of data bits that can be moved in or out of the processor in one cycle. The processor bus discussed most often is the external data bus. Processors from 286 to 386SX chips had a 16bit data bus, while the 386DX to 486 had a 32bit data bus. Modern Pentiums and Athlons have a 64bit data bus.

Processor Speed Ratings

A computers system clock is measured as a frequency, usually expressed as a number of cycles per second. A crystal oscillator controls clock speeds using a sliver of quartz, it is either installed separate or a component in a systems motherboard chipset. The oscillations emanate from the crystal in the form of a current that alternates at the harmonic rate of the crystal. This alternating current is the clock signal that forms the time base on which the computer operates.

Microprocessors

Microprocessors
A single cycle is the smallest element of time for the processor. Every action requires at least one cycle and usually multiple cycles. The Pentium III for example would need a minimum of three cycles to set up the first memory transfer and then only a single cycle per transfer for the next three to six consecutive transfers. The extra cycles on the first cycle is called a wait state A wait state is a clock tick in which nothing happens. This is to ensure that the processor is not getting ahead with the rest of the system.

Microprocessors
Processor execution times

8086 and 8088 average of 12 cycles per instruction 286, 386 used 4.5 cycles per instruction 486 and other fourth gen processors needed only 2 cycles per instruction Pentium, K6 series used twin instruction pipelines that provided operation at 1 to 2 instructions per cycle. P6/P7 and newer - sixth, seventh, and newer generation processors can execute 3 or more instructions per cycle, with multiples of that on multicore processors.

Microprocessors
Another confusing factor when comparing processor performance is that all processors since the 486DX2 run at some multiple of the motherboard speed. UP until early 1998, most motherboards ran at 66MHz or less because that is all Intel supported until then. By April 1998 Intel introduced both processor and motherboard chipset designed to run at 100MHz. Starting in late 1999, systems running at 133MHz became available, AMD also came up with systems running at 100MHz but using a double transfer technique reached speeds of 200MHz. 2001 and 2002 saw the introduction of 266 and 400 board speeds

Microprocessors

Microprocessors Generations
First generation processors - 1978 Second generation processors - 1981 Third generation processors late 1986 early 1987 Fourth generation processors approx. 1989 Fifth generation processors - October 1992 Sixth generation processors November 1995 Seventh generation processors November 2000 Eighth generation processors May 2001

Microprocessors P1
8086 and 8088 80186 and 80188 8087 math coprocessor

Microprocessors P2
80286 80287 math coprocessor

Microprocessors P3
80386 80386DX 80386SX 80386SL (notebook version) 80387 math coprocessor Weitek 1167 math coprocessor

Microprocessors P4
80486 486DX 486SL (power saving) 486SX (no FPU) 487SX co-processor 486DX2 486DX4 Pentium Overdrive 486SX2 & DX2 AMD 486 (5x86) Cyrix/TI 486

Microprocessors P5
Pentium processors Pentium MMX AMD K5

Microprocessors P6
Pentium Pro Pentium II Celeron Pentium III Pentium II/III Xeon NexGen NX-586 AMD K6 series AMD Athlon AMD Duron Cyrix/IBM 6x86 (MI) and 6x86MX (MII)

Microprocessors P7
Pentium 4 AMD Athlon XP

Microprocessors P8
Itanium Dual Core series Core 2 series Core I series AMD K10 processors (Phemon, Phenom II, Athlon II, Athlon X2, Sempron)

CPU Pipeline depth

Core 2 series
The highly efficient Core microarchitecture design featured in the Core 2 processor family provides 40% better performance and is 40% more energy efficient than the previous generation Pentium D processor. It is also interesting to note that the Core 2 Duo processor is Intels third-generation dual core processor; the first generation was the Pentium D processor for desktop PCs, and the second generation was the Core Duo processor for mobile PCs.

Core 2 Processor Types

Core 2 DuoStandard dual-core processors CeleronLow-end single or dual-core processors Core 2 QuadStandard quad-core processors Core 2 ExtremeHigh-end versions of either dual-core or quad-core processors

Core 2 Dual Core CPUs

Core 2 Quad Core CPUs

Core i series
NEHALEM
The Nehalem microarchitecture is the successor to Intels Core 2 microarchitecture. Nehalem processors are known as the Core i Series Family. Key features of this family include the integration of the memory controller into the processor, and in some models, the entire north bridge including an optional graphics processor codenamed Larrabee.

Core i series
The first Core i Series processor was the Core i7 introduced in November 2008. Initially built on a 45nm process, later Core i Series processors were built on an improved 32nm process allowing for smaller die, lower power consumption, and greater performance. All support DDR3 memory and include L3 cache, and some models include support for HT Technology.

Core i series

Core i series (original designs)

Core i series (Sandy Bridge)

Intel introduced the second generation of Core i-series processors, those based on the Sandy Bridge microarchitecture, in January 2011. The Sandy Bridge microarchitecture includes, as its predecessor did, an integrated memory controller and North Bridge functions.

Core i series (Sandy Bridge)

In-core graphics processor on some models AVX 256-bit SSE Extensions Level 0 instruction cache More accurate branch prediction unit Use of physical registers to store operands Improved power management Turbo Boost 2.0 for more scled responses to adjustments in core usage, processor temperature, current, power consumption, and operating system states, and a dedicated video decoding/encoding unit known as the multi-format codec (MFX)

All sandy bridge processors use 32nm manufacturing process

Core i series (Nehalem)

Core i series (Sandy bridge)

Core i series (Ivy bridge)

Ivy Bridge is a codename line of Intel processors based on the 22 nm manufacturing process. The name is also applied more broadly to the 22 nm die shrink of the Sandy Bridge microarchitecture based on tri-gate ("3D") transistors, which is also used in the future Xeon and Core i7 Ivy Bridge-EX, Ivy Bridge-EP and Ivy Bridge-E microprocessors due for release in 2013. Ivy Bridge processors are backwards-compatible with the Sandy Bridge platform, but might require a firmware update (vendor specific). Intel has released new 7-series Panther Point chipsets with integrated USB 3.0 to complement Ivy Bridge.

Core i series (Ivy bridge)

The mobile and desktop Ivy Bridge chips also include significant changes over Sandy Bridge: F16C(16-bit Floating-Point conversion instructions) PCI Express 3.0 support (not on Core i3 and ULV processors). Max CPU multiplier of 63 (57 for Sandy Bridge). RAM support up to 2800 MT/s in 200 MHz increments. The built-in GPU has 6 or 16 execution units (EUs), compared to Sandy Bridge's 6 or 12. Intel HD Graphics with DirectX 11, OpenGL 3.1, and OpenCL 1.1 support. OpenGL 4.0 is supported with 9.18.10.3071 WHQL drivers and later drivers. DDR3L and Configurable TDP for mobile processors. Multiple 4K video playback. Intel Quick Sync Video version 2.[14] Up to three displays are supported (with some limitations: with chipset of 7-series and using 2 of them with DisplayPort or eDP)[18]

Video Presentation
Removing a microprocessor from a ZIF socket.