Alexis V.

Larosa

Data
Data The word data is derived from Latin language. It is plural of Datum (But Data is usually used as a singular term.) Datum (singular) Data (plural). Data is any collection of facts of figures. The data is the raw material to be processed by a computer.

Example

Names of students, marks obtained in the examination, designation of employees, addresses, quantity, rate, sales figures or anything that is input to the computer is data. Even pictures, photographs, drawings, charts and maps can be treated as data. Computer processes the data and produces the output or result

Types of Data
Mainly Data is divided into two types: 1. Numeric Data 2. Character Data

1. Numeric Data

The data which is represented in the form of numbers is known as Numeric Data. This includes 0-9 digits, a decimal point (.), +, /, sign and the letters E or D.

2. Character Data

Character data falls into two groups. i. String Data ii. Graphical Data

String Data

Graphical Data

String data consists of the sequence of characters. Characters may be English alphabets, numbers or space. The space, which separates two words, is also a character. The string data is further divided into two types. a. Alphabetic Data b. Alphanumeric Data
It is possible that pictures, charts and maps can be treated as data. The scanner is normally used to enter this type of data. The common use of this data is found in the National Identity Card.

Information
A collection of data which conveys some meaningful idea is information. It may provide answers to questions like who, which, when, why, what, and how.

or
The raw input is data and it has no significance when it exists in that form. When data is collated or organized into something meaningful, it gains significance. This meaningful organization is information

or Observations and recordings are done to obtain data, while analysis is done to obtain information

Data Processing
Data processing: Any operation or set of operations performed upon data, whether or not by automatic means, such as collection, recording, organization, storage, adaptation or alteration to convert it into useful information.

Data Processing Cycle

Once data is collected, it is processed to convert it into useful information. The data is processed again and again until the accurate result is achieved. This is called data processing cycle. The data processing is very important activity and involves very careful planning. Usually, data processing activity involves three basic activities. Input 2. Processing 3. Output
1.

Data Processing Cycle Step-1

1. Input

It is the process through which collected data is transformed into a form that computer can understand. It is very important step because correct output result totally depends on the input data. In input step, following activities can be performed. i) Verification The collected data is verified to determine whether it is correct as required. For example, the collected data of all B.Sc. students that appeared in final examination of the university is verified. If errors occur in collected data, data is corrected or it is collected again. will be given to the program as input for processing.

ii) Coding The verified data is coded or converted into machine readable form so that it can be processed through computer. iii) Storing The data is stored on the secondary storage into a file. The stored data on the storage media

Data Processing Cycle Step-2

2.Processing The term processing denotes the actual data manipulation techniques such as classifying, sorting, calculating, summarizing, comparing, etc. that convert data into information.

i) Classification The data is classified into different groups and subgroups, so that each group or sub-group of data can be handled separately. opeii) Storing The data is arranged into an order so that it can be accessed very quickly as and when required.

iii) Calculations The arithmetic rations are performed on the numeric data to get the required results. For example, total marks of each student are calculated. iv) Summarizing The data is processed to represent it in a summarized form. ft means that the summary of data is prepared for top management. For example, the summary of the data of student is prepared to show the percentage of pass and fail student examination etc.

Data Processing Cycle Step-3

3. Output
After completing the processing step, output is generated. The main purpose of data processing is to get the required result. Mostly, the output is stored on the storage media for later user. In output step, following activities can be performed. i) Retrieval Output stored on the storage media can be retrieved at any time. For example, result of students is prepared and stored on the disk. This result can be retrieved when required for different purposes. ii).

Conversion The generated output can be converted into different forms. For example, it can be represented into graphical form. iii) Communication The generated output is sent to different places. For example, weather forecast is prepared and. sent to different agencies and newspapers etc. where it is required

Types of Data Processing

1. Manual Data Processing:
This method of data processing involves human intervention. The manual process of data entry implies many opportunities for errors, such as delays in data capture, as every single data field has to be keyed in manually, a high amount of operator misprints or typos, high labor costs from the amount of manual labor required. Manual processing also implies higher labor expenses in regards to spending for equipment and supplies, rent, etc.

Types of Data Processing

EDP
EDP (electronic data processing), an infrequently used term for what is today usually called "IS" (information services or systems) or "MIS" (management information services or systems), is the processing of data by a computer and its programs in an environment involving electronic communication. EDP evolved from "DP" (data processing), a term that was created when most computing input was physically put into the computer in punched card form or in ATM cards form and output as punched cards or paper reports.

Types of Data Processing

3.Real time processing In a real time processing, there is a continual input, process and output of data. Data has to be processed in a small stipulated time period (real time), otherwise it will create problems for the system. For example, when a bank customer withdraws a sum of money from his or her account it is vital that the transaction be processed and the account balance updated as soon as possible, allowing both the bank and customer to keep track of funds.

Types of Data Processing

4.Batch processing In a batch processing group of transactions collected over a period of time is collected, entered, processed and then the batch results are produced. Batch processing requires seperate programs for input, process and output. It is an efficient way of processing high volume of data. For example: Payroll system, Examination system and billing system.

Computer Processing Operations

A computer can perform only the following four operations which enable computers to carry out the various data processing activities we have just discussed. (a) Input/Output operations A computer can accept data (input) from and supply processed data (output) to a wide range of input/output devices. These devices such as keyboards, display screens, and printers make humanmachine communication possible.

Computer Processing Operations

(b)
Calculation and text manipulation Operations

Computer circuits perform calculations on numbers. They are also capable of manipulating numerics and other symbols used in text with equal efficiency.

Computer Processing Operations

(c) Logic/Comparison Operations
A computer also possesses the ability to perform logical operations.

For example, if we compare two items represented by the symbols A and B, there are only three possible outcomes. A is less than B (A<B); A is equal to B (A=B): or A is greater than B (A>B). A computer can perform such comparisons and the, depending on the result, follow a predetermined path to complete its work. This ability to compare is an important property of computers.

Computer Processing Operations

(d) Storage and Retrieval Operations Both data and program instructions are stored internally in a computer. Once they are stored in the internal memory, they can be called up quickly or retrieved, for further use.

Generic algorithm in data collection

How will the information be collected and analysed? What/who are the data sources? What types of data are most appropriate? What are the most appropriate methods of data collection?

How will the data be analysed and presented in order to address the key evaluation questions? What ethical issues are involved in the evaluation and how will they addressed?

Management techniques (includes

project, plant and sales engineering)
Information gathering techniques
Brainstorming Delphi technique here a facilitator distributes a questionnaire to experts, responses are summarized (anonymously) & re-circulated among the experts for comments. This technique is used to achieve a consensus of experts and helps to receive unbiased data, ensuring that no one person will have undue influence on the outcome

 Interviewing Root cause analysis for identifying a problem, discovering the causes that led to it and developing preventive action

Checklist analysis Assumption analysis -this technique may reveal an inconsistency of assumptions, or uncover problematic assumptions.

Diagramming techniques
Cause and effect diagrams System or process flow charts Influence diagrams graphical representation of situations, showing the casual influences or relationships among variables and outcomes

SWOT analysis

Expert judgment individuals who have experience with similar project in the not too distant past may use their judgment through interviews or risk facilitation workshops

ICT Techniques
Manual Input Methods Automated input methods

Other techniques
Site Visits -These are used to obtain first-hand understanding of the processes, activities, physical environment and working conditions Focus Groups These are used to obtain different reactions to one topic.

Prototyping-A prototype is a model on which later stages or development is based or judged. Prototypes are usually primitive forms used to evaluate a design. Prototypes may or may not actually work. Simulation

Data Analysis

Goal of an analysis: * To explain cause-and-effect phenomena * To relate research with real-world event

* To predict/forecast the real-world phenomena based on research * Finding answers to a particular problem * Making conclusions about real-world event based on the problem * Learning a lesson from the problem

An analysis must have four elements: * Data/information (what) * Scientific reasoning/argument (what? who? where? how? what happens?) * Finding (what results?) * Lesson/conclusion (so what? so how? therefore,)

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative analysis The non-numerical examination and interpretation of observations, for the purpose of discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationship.

Linking Theory and Analysis

Discovering Patterns
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Frequencies Magnitudes Structures Processes Causes Consequences

 Cross-case analysis An analysis that involves an examination of more than one case; this can be either a variable-oriented or case-oriented analysis.
Variable-oriented analysis An analysis that describes and/or explains a particular variable.

Case-oriented analysis An analysis that aims to understand a particular case or several cases by looking closely at the details of each.

 Grounded

Theory Method (GTM) An inductive approach to research in which theories are generated solely from an examination of data rather than being derived deductively.
Constant Comparative Method A component of the Grounded Theory Method in which observations are compared with one another and with the evolving inductive theory.

Four Stages of Constant Comparative Method (Glaser and Strauss):

1. Comparing incident application to each category 2. Integrating categories and their properties 3. Delimiting the theory 4. Writing theory

Semiotics The study of signs and the meanings associated with them, the science of signs. What is the meaning of:
a blue ribbon? say cheese? a cross? a horseshoe?

Conversation Analysis A meticulous analysis of the details of conversation, based on a complete transcript that includes pauses, hems and haws.

 Fundamental Assumptions
1. Conversation is a socially constructed activity. 2. Conversations must be understood contextually. 3. Conversational analysis aims to understand the structure and meaning of conversation through excruciatingly accurate transcripts of conversations.

Qualitative Data Processing

Coding Classifying or categorizing individual pieces of data, coupled with some kind of retrieval system.
Coding Units Coding as a Physical Act

Creating Codes
Open Coding the initial classification and labeling of concepts in qualitative data analysis.
Axial coding a reanalysis of the results of open coding in the GTM, aimed at identifying the important, general concepts. Selective coding in GTM, this builds on the results of open coding and axial coding to identify the central concept that organizes the other concepts that have been identified in a body of textual materials.

 Memoing

Writing memos that become part of the data for analysis in qualitative research such as grounded theory. Memos may describe and define concepts, deal with methodologies issues, or offer initial theoretical formulations.
Code Notes Theoretical Notes Operational Notes

Concept Mapping The graphic display of concepts and their interrelations, useful in the formulation of theory.

Computer Programs for Qualitative Data

QDA Programs Example: Leviticus as Seen Through NUD*IST

Example: Using NVivo to Understand Women Film Directors

Evaluating the Quality of Qualitative Research

Validity Reliability

 Questions/Assessments

1. How credible are the findings? 2. How has knowledge or understanding been extended by the research? 3. How well does the evaluation address its original aims and purpose? 4. How well is the scope for drawing wider inferences explained? 5. How clear is the basis of evaluative appraisal? 6. How defensible is the research design? 7. How well defended are the same design/target selection of cases/documents?

Research

for Evaluating Qualitative

Quantitative Data Analysis

Summarizing Data: variables; simple statistics; effect statistics and statistical models; complex models. Generalizing from Sample to Population: precision of estimate, confidence limits, statistical significance, p value, errors.

Common descriptive statistics

Count (frequencies) Percentage Mean Mode Median Range Standard deviation Variance Ranking

Tools to support quantitative data analysis

Spreadsheet simple to use, basic graphs Statistical packages, e.g. SPSS

Which calculation do I use? It depends upon what you want to know.

Do you want to know how many individuals checked each answer? Do you want the proportion of people who answered in a certain way? Do you want the average number or average score? Frequency Percentage Mean

Do you want the middle value in a range of values or scores?

Do you want to show the range in answers or scores? Do you want to compare one group to another? Do you want to report changes from pre to post? Do you want to show the degree to which a response varies from the mean?

Median
Range Cross tab Change score Standard deviation