RESPIRATORY

SYSTEM
Energy obtained through aerobic mechanisms that require oxygen and produce
carbon dioxide


2 system that cooperate to supply O
2
& remove CO
2


cardiovascular & respiratory
Living cells need energy for:

maintenance
growth
defense
replication
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM


transports the respiratory gases.

circulating blood carries O
2
from the lungs >>>> peripheral tissues;

transports the CO
2
>>>>>>> lungs

RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS

confined inside the lungs

provides for gas exchange difussion of gases between the air and the blood.

It takes place in 3 basic steps :-
Pulmonary Ventilation
Gas Exchanged

Diffusion of O
2
& CO
2
between;

lungs blood [external respiration]
blood tissues [internal respiration]

exchange of gases between
the atmosphere, blood & cells.


Gas Transport

Transportation of O
2
and CO
2

FUNCTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
5 basic functions:-
Providing an extensive area for gas exchange between the air
and the circulating blood
Moving air to and from the exchange surfaces of the
lungs
Protecting respiratory surfaces from dehydration, temperature changes,or
other environmental variations and defending the respiratory system and
other tissues from invasion by pathogens
Producing sounds involved in speaking, singing, and
nonverbal communication
Providing olfactory sensations
The respiratory system can be divided into;-


upper respiratory system
lower respiratory system
Nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx
larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe), bronchi,
bronchioles, and alveoli of the lungs
- filter, warm, & humidify the incoming air - cool &
dehumidify outgoing air --- --protecting the more
delicate surfaces of the lower respiratory system
ORGANISATION OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1
bronchi
Larynx
Nose
Nasal
cavity
Trachea
Lungs
Pharynx
By the time air reaches the alveoli, most foreign particles and pathogens have been
removed, and the humidity and temperature are within acceptable limits.

The success of this "conditioning process" is due primarily to the properties of the
respiratory mucosa
The respiratory tract can be divided into
conducting portion
respiratory portion
- nose pharynx larynx trachea bronchi bronchioles
(conduct air into the lungs)
- respiratory bronchioles the alveoli
(gas exchange surface)
Filtering, warming, and humidification - begin at the entrance and continue throughout the
rest of the conducting system.
The respiratory mucosa lines the conducting portion of the respiratory system
consists of an epithelium (ciliated with numerous goblet cells ) and loose connective
tissue
The Respiratory Mucosa
Goblet cell
Cillia
Stem cell
the primary passageway for air entering the respiratory system made of cartilage & skin.

Air normally enters through the paired external nares, or nostrils, which open into the nasal
cavity.
The Nose and Nasal Cavity
Fn:- warming, moistening & filtering the incoming air; receiving olfactory stimuli; & serving as
large, hollow resonating chamber to modify speech sounds.
The vestibule - space contained within
the nose - contains coarse hairs that
extend across the external nares.

-- Large airborne particles, such as sand,
sawdust, or even insects, are trapped in
these hairs and are thereby prevented
from entering the nasal cavity

The olfactory region, includes the areas
lined by olfactory epithelium (receptors)
provide sense of smell.



a muscular chamber shared by the digestive and respiratory systems.
It extends between the internal nares and the entrances to the larynx and esophagus.
It can be divided into 3 anatomical regions:-
The nasopharynx fn/ in respiration
The oropharnxy
The laryngopharynx
The Pharynx
passageway that connects the pharynx with the trachea

Three large, unpaired cartilages form the body of the larynx:

the thyroid cartilage (Adams apple)

the cricoid cartilage connect larynx & trachea

the epiglottis - preventing the entry of liquids or solid food into respiratory tract.

The Larynx
Serving as passageways for both air & food
The larynx contains vocal folds (vocal cords) produce sound

The pitch of the sound produced depends on the diameter, length, and tension in the vocal
folds.
children - slender, short vocal folds - voices tend to be high-pitched.
At puberty, the larynx of a male enlarges > a female.
The true vocal cords of an adult male - thicker and longer - produce lower tones
# other structures are necessary for converting the sound into recognisable speech
The Trachea
a tough, flexible tube - a diameter of about 2.5 cm & a length of ~ 11cm

extends from the larynx to the 1 bronchi
composed of smooth muscle & C-shaped cartilage
ciliated epithelium
cartilage rings keep the airway open & prevent its
collapse
The cilia sweep debris away from the lungs & back
to the throat to be swallowed

Heimlich maneuver, or abdominal thrust
tracheostomy & intubation
The Primary (1) Bronchi
The trachea divides into the right & left primary bronchi.
A ridge called the carina marks the line of separation between the two bronchi
The bronchial tree consists of;
Trachea, 1 Bronchi, 2 Bronchi, 3 Bronchi, Bronchioles & Terminal Bronchioles

- Walls of bronchi contains cartilage rings

- Walls of bronchioles dominated by smooth muscle
Each tertiary bronchus branches several times giving rise to multiple bronchioles.
These branch further into the finest conducting branches, called terminal bronchioles.
Roughly 6500 terminal bronchioles are supplied by each tertiary bronchus.
The walls of bronchioles, which lack cartilaginous supports, are dominated by smooth muscle
tissue.
Varying the diameter of the bronchioles provides control over the amount of resistance to
airflow and the distribution of air within the lungs.
The ANS regulates & controls the diameter of the bronchioles.
Sympathetic - bronchodilation ( diameter)
Parasympathetic bronchoconstriction ( diameter)
Bronchoconstriction also occurs during allergic reactions such as anaphylaxis, in response to
histamine released by activated mast cells and basophils.

The Bronchioles
Alveolus
Bronkus 3
Bronkus 1
Bronkus 2
Bronkiol
Rawan
Trakea
o Paired organs located in the thoracic cavity; enclosed & protected by the pleural membrane
- Parietal pleura (outer layer) attached to the wall of the thoracic cavity
- Visceral pleural (inner layer) covering the lungs
o Between the pleurae the pleural cavity filled with lubricating fluid
o Each lung is a blunt cone, with the tip, or apex, pointing superiorly.
o The lungs have distinct lobes separated by deep fissures.
The right lung - three lobes separated by 2 fissures
The left lung - two lobes separated by 1 fissure + a depression, the cardiac notch
The Lungs
Respiratory bronchioles are connected to individual alveoli and to multiple alveoli along
regions called alveolar ducts.

These passageways end at alveolar sacs, common chambers connected to multiple individual
alveoli

Alveolar Ducts and Alveoli
Alveoli are tiny thin-wall sacs where gas exchange
occurs.

Each lung contains about 150 million alveoli,
and their abundance gives the lung an open,
spongy appearance.

An extensive network of capillaries is associated
with each alveolus.

The capillaries are surrounded by a network of elastic fibers.

This elastic tissue helps maintain the relative
positions of the alveoli and respiratory
bronchioles.

Recoil of these fibers during exhalation
reduces the size of the alveoli and helps
push air out of the lungs.
ALVEOLI & PULMONARY CAPILLARIES
The PULMONARY ARTERIES carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs

These blood vessels branch repeatedly, eventually forming dense networks of capillaries that
completely surround each alveolus.

Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the
pulmonary capillaries.

Blood leaves the capillaries via PULMONARY VEINS, which transport oxygenated blood
back to the heart.
STRUCTURE OF AN ALVEOLUS
Alveoli contains 3 types of cells:-
Simple squamous epithelium cells (Type I cells)
Alveolar marcophages (dust cells)
Surfactant-secreting cells (Type II cells / septal cells)
The wall of an alveolus is primarily composed of simple squamous epithelium cells (Type I
cells).

They usually very thin & delicate.

Gas exchange occurs easily across this very thin epithelium.

Roaming alveolar macrophages patrol the epithelium phagotising any particulate matter that
has eluded the respiratory defenses & reached the alveolar surface.

Surfactant-secreting cells are scattered among squamous cells.

These large cells produce an oily secretion, or surfactant.

Surfactant lowers the surface tension of alveolar fluid, preventing the collapse of alveoli
with each expiration.
* *Surface tension is due to the strong attraction between H
2
O molecules at the surface of liquid, which
draws the H
2
O molecular closer together.**
At the respiratory membrane, the total distance separating the alveolar air and the blood
can be as little as 0.1 m.

Diffusion across the respiratory membrane proceeds very rapidly, because:

(1) the distance is small and

(2) both oxygen and carbon dioxide are lipid-soluble.

THE RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE
Gas exchange occurs across the respiratory membrane of the alveoli.

The respiratory membrane is a composite structure consisting of three parts:
The squamous epithelial cell lining the alveolus.

The endothelial cell lining an adjacent capillary.

The fused basement membranes that lie between the alveolar and endothelial cells.
diaphragm
External
intercostals
RESPIRATORY MUSCLES
the most important respiratory muscles - the diaphragm and the external intercostals
(inspiratory muscles).

These muscles are involved in normal breathing at
rest.

The accessory respiratory muscles become active
when the depth and frequency of respiration must
be increased markedly.

rectus
abdominis
Serratus
anterior
sternocleidomastoid
PULMONARY VENTILATION
~ physical movement of air into & out of the respiratory tract.
The primary function :-
# to maintain adequate alveolar ventilation (air movement into
& out of the alveoli)
Alveolar ventilation prevents the buildup of CO
2
in the alveoli & ensure a continuous supply of O
2
.
Relationship between pressure & volume is important to understand this mechanical process.
The pressure is related to the volume
Volume Pressure
Volume Pressure
Gas pressure (P) is inversely proportional to volume (V)
V - P
V - P
This relationship,
is called Boyles law, (Robert Boyle, 1600s)
Air flow area higher pressure area of lower pressure.

A single respiration cycle consists of :-
# Inspiration (inhalation)
# Expiration (exhalation)
P = 1/V
Inhalation & exhalation involve changes in the volume of the lungs

These changes create pressure gradients that move air into & out of the respiratory tract.

Movements (contraction / relaxation) of the chest wall & diaphragm also have direct effect on
the volume of the lungs.

A respiratory cycle is a single cycle of inhalation and exhalation.

The tidal volume is the amount of air you move into or out of your lungs during a single respiratory
cycle.

It is related to changes in the intrapleural and intrapulmonary pressures
The Respiratory Cycle
INSPIRATION
The volume of the thoracic cavity is change by muscle contraction
& relaxation.

During quite inspiration, the diaphragm & the external intercostal
muscles contract.

The diaphragm flattens & moves downward, while the external
intercostal muscles elevate rib cage & move the sternum forward.
These actions enlarge the thoracic cavity,

increasing the volume

decreasing the pressure within the thoracic
cavity & the lungs.

air flows in
Volume
P
outside
> P
inside

EXPIRATION
Quite expiration is a passive process, in which;


As the diaphragm relax, it moves inward & as the external intercostal muscle relax ;
rib cage & sternum return to resting position.

- the diaphragm & the external intercostal muscle relax
- the elastic lungs &thoracic wall recoil inward.
These actions,

decreasing the volume

increasing the pressure within the thoracic cavity & the lungs.

air flows out
Volume
P
outside
< P
inside
Respiratory Rates
Respiratory rate is the number of breaths per minute.

The normal respiratory rate of a resting adult ranges from 12 to 18 breaths per minute.

Children breathe more rapidly, at rates of about 18-20 breaths per minute.
INTRAPULMONARY PRESSURE (IPP) CHANGES
+ The direction of airflow - determined by the relationship between atmospheric pressure &
intrapulmonary pressure.

+ IPP/intra-alveolar pressure = the pressure measure within the alveoli

+ Between breaths, it equals atmospheric pressure - 760 mmHg at sea level.
~ generally refers as 0, when refer to the respiratory pressure.
On inhalation, the lungs expand, and the IPP drops to about 759 mmHg (negative pressure).

Because the IPP is 1mm Hg below atmospheric, it is generally reported as -1 mmHg.

Since air moves from area of high pressure area of low pressure, air flows into the lungs.

At the end of the respiration, when the IPP = the atmospheric pressure
air flows stop.
On exhalation, the lungs recoil, and the IPP rises to 761 mm Hg, or +1 mm Hg (positive
pressure)

Following pressure gradient, air flows out of the lungs until at the end of exhalation, when
the IPP = the atmospheric pressure.
INTRAPLEURAL PRESSURE
pressure in the space between the parietal & visceral pleurae.

Always negative (~ -4 mm Hg) - acts like a suction to keep the lungs inflated.

The negative pressure is due to 3 main factors:-
Surface tension of alveolar fluid
the surface tension of the alveolar fluid tends to pull each of the alveoli inward &
therefore pulls the entire lungs inward.

>>>surfactant reduces this force<<<
Elasticity of the lungs
The abundant elastic tissues in the lungs tend to recoil & pull the lungs inward.

As the lungs moves away from the thoracic wall, the cavity becomes slightly larger,
decreasing the pressure

The negative pressure acts like a suction to keep the lung inflated.
Elasticity of the thoracic wall
The elastic thoracic wall tends to pull away from the lung, further enlarging the pleural
cavity & creating this negative pressure.

The surface tension of pleural fluid resist the actual separation of the lungs & thoracic
wall.
As the thoracic wall moves outward during inspiration,

volume of the pleural cavity
intrapleural pressure
As the thoracic wall moves inward/recoils during expiration,

volume of the pleural cavity
intrapleural pressure
INTRAPLEURAL PRESSURE CHANGES
EFFECT OF PNEUMOTHORAX !!!!
What will happen to a lung if you cut through the thoracic wall????????

>>The lung will collapse<<
air enters the pleural cavity as it moves from high pressure to low pressure. This is called a pneumothorax.
Normally, there is a difference between intrapulmonary & intrapleural pressure, which is called trans-
pulmonary pressure.
Transpulmonary pressure creates the suction to keep the lungs inflated
>> IN THIS CASE, when there is no pressure difference - there is no suction >>>lung collapse.
INHALATION EXHALATION
+1
+2
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
Intrapulmonary
pressure
(mm Hg)
Intrapleural
pressure
(mm Hg)
SUMMARY
AIR FLOW INTO
THE LUNGS
Lungs expand
intrapulmonary pressure
drops (to -1mm Hg)
INSPIRATION

Intrapleural pressure
become > negative

Thoracic cavity
volume increases
Inspiratory muscles
contract (diaphragm
descends; rib cage
rises)

AIR FLOW OUT
THE LUNGS
Lungs recoil
intrapulmonary pressure
rises (to +1mm Hg)
EXPIRATION

Intrapleural pressure
become < negative

Thoracic cavity
volume decreases
Inspiratory muscles
relax (diaphagm
rises; rib cage descends)

FACTORS AFFECTING VENTILATION
2 other important factors play roles in ventilation:-

resistance within the airways
lungs compliance
Resistance within the airways
As air flows into the lungs, the gas molecules encounter resistance when they strike the
walls of the airway.

Therefore, the diameter of the airway affects resistance.
What will happen when bronchiole constrict (diameter )????
>>the resistance increases<< - because more gas molecules encounter the airway wall.
When resistance the air flow

airflow is inversely related to resistance
AIRFLOW =
PRESSURE (P)
RESISTANCE (R)
P - pressure difference between atmosphere
& intrapulmonary pressure.
in healthy lungs, the airways typically offer little resistance,
so airflow flows easily into & out of the lungs.
Factors affecting airways resistance
Parasympathetic neurones released the Ach, which constricts bronchioles
>> resistance <<
contraction / relaxation of smooth muscle in the airway walls change the diameter of the
airway, especially the bronchioles.
Histamine, released during allergic reactions, constricts bronchioles
>> resistance <<
epinephrine, released by the adrenal medulla, during exercise/stress, dilates
bronchioles
>> resistance <<
Lungs compliance
indication of lungs expandability.

The lower the compliance, the greater the force required to fill & empty the lungs.
Primarily determined by:-
(1) The stretchability of elastic fibers within the lungs.
Healthy lungs have high compliance because of their abundant elastic
connective tissues.

Low compliance ---- lungs difficult to inflate >>> occur in some pathological
condition such as fibrosis, in which increasing amount of less flexible
connective tissues developed.
(2) The level of surfactant production
The collapse of alveoli on expiration, due to inadequate surfactant, as in
respiratory distress syndrome, reduces compliance.
without surfactant, alveoli have high surface tension, & they tend to collapse
(3) The mobility of the thoracic cage.
Arthritis or other skeletal disorders that affect the articulations of the ribs or
spinal column will also reduce compliance.
GAS EXCHANGE
Pulmonary ventilation ensures that alveoli are supplied with oxygen (O
2
), and it removes
the carbon dioxide (CO
2
) arriving from bloodstream.

The actual process of gas exchange occurs between the blood and alveolar air across the
respiratory membrane.

O
2
& CO
2
diffuse between the alveoli & pulmonary capillaries in the lungs, & between the
systemic capillaries & cells throughout the body.

Things to consider:-
(1) the partial pressures of the gases involved and
(2) the diffusion of molecules between a gas and a liquid.
The air that we breathe is not a single gas but a mixture of gases :-
OXYGEN (O
2
)
- 2
nd
most abundant, ~ 20.9%
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO
2
)
- 0.04%
NITROGEN (N
2
)
- the most abundant, accounting for ~ 78.6% of the atmospheric gas molecules.
WATER (H
2
O)
- 0.46%
DALTONS LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE
The combined pressure of these gases equals atmospheric pressure.
At sea level, atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg, represents the combined effects of
collisions involving each type of molecule in air.

Each gas within the atmospheric is responsible for part of that pressure in proportion
to its percentage in the atmosphere.
The pressure exerted by :-
<< O
2
>>
20.9% x 760 mm Hg = 159 mm Hg
This value is known as the partial pressure of
O
2
& it is written as Po2.
<< CO
2
>>
0.04% x 760 mm Hg = 0.3 mm Hg
<< N
2
>>
78.6% x 760 mm Hg = 597 mm Hg
<< H
2
O >>
0.46% x 760 mm Hg = 3.5 mm Hg
The partial pressures of the 4 gases added together equal the total pressure exerted by
the gas mixture.
P
O2
+ P
CO2
+ P
N2
+ P
H2O
= 760 mm Hg
This relationship is known as Daltons law
Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude.
eg. At altitude above 10 000, atmospheric pressure drops to ~ 440 mm Hg.
<< P
O2
>>
20.9% x 440 mm Hg = 92 mm Hg
(P
O2
at sea level = 159 mm Hg)
- lower atmospheric pressure > fewer gas molecules & fewer oxygen molecules are
available.
#that explained why you may gasp for breath at high altitude / feel light-headed #
<< P
CO2
>>
0.04% x 440 mm Hg = 0.2 mm Hg
<< P
N2
>>
78.6% x 440 mm Hg = 346 mm Hg
<< P
H2O
>>
0.46% x 440 mm Hg = 2 mm Hg
At high altitudes, the partial pressures of all gases are lower than at sea level.
HENRYS LAW : DIFFUSION BETWEEN LIQUIDS AND GASES
Within the lungs, O
2
& CO
2
diffuse between the air & the alveoli & the blood,
i.e. between the gas & the liquid.

This movement is governed by Henrys law, which states that the amount of gas which
dissolves in a liquid is proportional to both :




the partial pressure of the gas
the solubility of the gas
At equilibrium, the pressure of O
2
in the air is the same as in the liquid, with the gas
molecules diffusing at the same rate in both directions.
The actual amount of a gas in solution at a given partial pressure and temperature
depends on the solubility of the gas in that particular liquid.

Carbon dioxide is very soluble, oxygen is somewhat less soluble, and nitrogen has very
limited solubility in body fluids.
pressure pressure
SITES OF GAS EXCHANGE
Blood that is low in O
2
(deoxygenated blood) is pumped from the right side of the heart
through the pulmonary artery to the lungs.
CO
2
diffuses from the pulmonary capillaries into the alveoli.
O
2
diffuses from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries.
EXTERNAL RESPIRATION (occur within the lungs at respiratory membrane)
O
2
-rich blood (oxygenated blood) leaves the lungs & transported through pulmonary
vein to the left side of the heart.
From here, it is pumped through the systemic circuit to tissues throughout body.
INTERNAL RESPIRATION (occur within tissues)
CO2 diffuses from the tissues/cells into the capillaries
O2 diffuses from the capillaries into the tissues/cells.
FACTORS INFLUENCING EXTERNAL RESPIRATION
Gas exchange at the respiratory membrane is efficient for the following five reasons
The fusion of capillary and alveolar basement membranes reduces the distance to an
average of 0.5 m.
Inflammation of the lung tissue or fluid buildup inside the alveoli will increase the
diffusion distance and impair alveolar gas exchange.
The distances involved in gas exchange are small
the 300 millions alveoli covered with dense network of pulmonary capillaries provide
an enormous surface area for efficient gas exchange.
The total surface area is large
Both oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse readily through the surfactant layer and the
alveolar and endothelial cell membranes.
The gases are lipid-soluble
The differences in partial pressure across the respiratory membrane
This fact is important because the greater the difference in partial pressure, the faster
the rate of gas diffusion.
Conversely, if the PO
2
in the alveoli decreases, the rate of oxygen diffusion into the
blood will drop.
Blood flow and airflow are coordinated.
This arrangement improves the efficiency of both pulmonary ventilation and pulmonary
circulation.
e.g., blood flow is greatest around alveoli with the highest PO
2
values, where oxygen
uptake can proceed with maximum efficiency.
If the normal circulation is impaired, as occurs in a pulmonary embolism, or the normal
airflow is interrupted, as in various forms of pulmonary obstruction, this coordination is
lost, and respiratory efficiency decreases.
Partial Pressures in the Alveolar Air and Alveolar Capillaries
Blood arriving in the pulmonary arteries has a lower PO
2
and a higher PCO
2
than does
alveolar air.

Diffusion between the alveolar mixture and the pulmonary capillaries thus elevates the PO
2

of the blood while lowering its PCO
2
.

By the time the blood enters the pulmonary venules, it has reached equilibrium with the
alveolar air, so it departs the alveoli with a PO
2
of ~ 100 mm Hg and a PCO
2
of ~ 40 mm Hg.

Diffusion occurs very rapidly.

At rest, a red blood cell moves through one of pulmonary capillaries in ~ 0.75 sec.

During exercise, that passage takes less than 0.3 second.
pulmonary capillary
Partial Pressures in the Systemic Circuit
The oxygenated blood leaves the alveolar capillaries and returns to the heart, to be
discharged into the systemic circuit.

As it enters the pulmonary veins, the oxygenated blood from the alveolar capillaries
mixes with blood that flowed through capillaries around conducting passageways.

The partial pressure of oxygen in the pulmonary veins therefore drops to ~ 95 mm Hg
& no further changes in partial pressure occur until the blood reaches the peripheral
capillaries.

Normal interstitial fluid has a PO
2
of 40 mm Hg.

oxygen diffuses out of the capillaries and carbon dioxide diffuses in, until the capillary
partial pressures are the same as those in the adjacent tissues.

Blood entering the systemic circuit normally has a PCO
2
of 40 mm Hg.

Inactive peripheral tissues normally have a PCO
2
of about 45 mm Hg.

As a result, carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood as oxygen diffuses out.
P
O2
=40
P
co2
=45
P
O2
=100
P
co2
=40
P
O2
=100
P
co2
=40
P
O2
=95
P
co2
=40
P
O2
=40
P
co2
=45
P
O2
=40
P
co2
=45
GAS TRANSPORT
. O
2
& CO
2
have limited solubility in blood plasma.

. The limited solubilities of these gases are a problem because peripheral tissues need
more oxygen and generate more carbon dioxide than the plasma can absorb and transport.
The problem is solved by the red blood cells either bind them (in the case of oxygen)
or use them to manufacture soluble compounds (in the case of carbon dioxide).
The important thing about these reactions is that they are
(1) temporary
(2) completely reversible.
1.5 % dissolves in plasma

98.5 % combines with hemoglobin (Hb) in red blood cells
Of the O
2
that diffuses from the alveoli:-
Oxygen transport
each Hb molecule can bind 4 molecules of oxygen, forming oxyhemoglobin.
This is a reversible reaction can be summarised as :


Hb + O
2
HbO
2

lungs
tissues
~ 280 million molecules of hemoglobin in each RBC & since each hemoglobin molecule
contains four heme units,

each RBC potentially can carry more than a billion molecules of oxygen
Carbon dioxide is generated by aerobic metabolism in peripheral tissues.
After entering the bloodstream, a CO
2
molecule may be
(1) converted to a molecule of carbonic acid,
(2) bound to the protein portion of hemoglobin molecules within RBCs, or
(3) dissolved in the plasma
All three are completely reversible reactions.
Carbon Dioxide Transport
- Carbon dioxide is converted to carbonic acid through the activity of the enzyme
carbonic anhydrase within RBCs.

- The carbonic acid molecules immediately dissociate into a hydrogen ion and a
bicarbonate ion.
Carbonic acid formation
- Most of the carbon dioxide absorbed by the blood (~ 70 percent of the total) will be
transported as molecules of carbonic acid.
carbonic
anhydrase
CO
2
+ H
2
O H
2
CO
3
H
+
+ HCO
3

~ 23 % of the carbon dioxide carried by your blood will be bound to the globular protein
portions of the Hb molecules inside RBCs.

These carbon dioxide molecules are attached to exposed amino groups (--NH2) of the Hb
molecules.

The result is called carbaminohemoglobin, HbCO2
Hemoglobin Binding
CO
2
+ HbNH
2
HbNHCOOH (HbCO2)
Plasma becomes saturated with carbon dioxide quite rapidly, and only about 7 % of the
carbon dioxide absorbed by peripheral capillaries is transported in the form of dissolved
gas molecules.

The rest is absorbed by the RBCs for conversion by carbonic anhydrase or storage as
carbaminohemoglobin
Plasma Transport
SUMMARY OF THE PRIMARY GAS TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
CONTROL OF RESPIRATION
Normal breathing - rhythmic, involuntary
The respiratory muscles, however, are under voluntary control

The control of respiration is tied to the principle of homeostasis.

Body maintained homeostasis through homeostatic control mechanisms which have 3
basic components:-
RECEPTORS
CONTROL
CENTERS
EFFECTORS
The principle factors that control respiration are chemical factors in the blood.

Changes in arterial PCO
2
, PO
2
& pH are monitor by sensory receptor called
chemoreceptors.


The chemoreceptors send sensory inputs to respiratory centers in the brainstem,
which determine the the appropriate respond to the changing variables.

The centers then send nerve impulses to the effectors, the respiratory muscles to control
the force & frequency of contraction.

These changes the ventilation, the rate & depth of breathing.
Ventilation changes restored the arterial blood gases & pH to normal range.
Arterial PCO
2
, PO
2
& pH
Chemoreceptors
RESPIRATORY
CENTERS
Respiratory muscles
ventilation
RESPIRATORY CENTER
The basic rhythms of breathing is controlled by respiratory centers located in medulla &
pons of the brainstem.

Within the medulla, a pair group of neurones known as the inspiratory center/ dorsal
respiratory group (DRG) sets the basic rhythms by automatically initiating inspiration.

A 2nd group of neurone in the medulla, the expiratory center/ ventral respiratory group
appear to function mainly during forced expiration, stimulating the internal intercostal &
abdominal muscles to contract.

The neurones in the pneumotaxic area of the pons continously transmit impulse that
inhibit the inspiratory originating from DRG.