OSCILLATORS Is a device that produces oscillations, which is to generate repetitive waveform.

Oscillation- is an act of fluctuating from one state to another.

FEEDBACK OSCILLATORS
Is an amplifier with a feedback loop A feedback oscillator generates an ac output signal of which a small portion is fed back to the input.

BARKHAUSEN CRITERION
a. b. To sustain oscillation, it should be The gain must be 1 or greater The net phase shift must be positive and multiple by 360

Requirements for feedback

1. 2. 3. 4. Amplification Positive feedback Frequency determining circuit Source

A= gain of an amplifier/open loop gain

= feedback G ratio G= gain of the feedback osc./closed loop gain

A (1 AB )

UNTUNED OSCILLATOR

PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

TUNED OSCILLATOR

HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
COLPITTS OSCILLATOR CLAPP OSCILLATOR

UNTUNED OSCILLATOR
Phase shift oscillator
RC or phase-shift oscillator one way of producing a phase shift of 180 is to use an RC ladder network

this gives a phase shift of 180 when at this frequency the gain of the network is

1 2CR 6

vo 1 vi 29

UNTUNED OSCILLATOR
Wien bridge oscillator Wien-bridge oscillator uses a Wien-bridge network this produces a phase-shift of 0 at a single frequency, and is used with an inverting amplifier the selected frequency is

when the gain is 1/3

1 2CR

TUNED OSCILLATOR
-USED LC TANK CIRCUIT..

OSCILLATO R TYPE HARTLEY COLPITTS CLAPP

X1 L C C

X2 L C C

X3 C L LCs

FREQUENCY STABILITY
Is the ability of an oscillator to remain at the fixed frequency and is primary importance in communication systems.

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
frequency stability is determined by the ability of the circuit to select a particular frequency in tuned circuits this is described by the quality factor, Q piezoelectric crystals act like resonant circuits with a very high Q as high as 100,000

PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT
Occurs when oscillating mechanical stresses applied across a crystal lattice structure generates electrical oscillations and vice versa The stress can be formed as twisting, compressing, tensile. Note: BAW(Bulk Acoustic Wave) is mechanical vibrations which is proportional to the amplitude of DC voltage applied.

TYPES OF CRYSTALS USED

Rochelle salt Tourmaline Quartz

CRYSTAL CUTS Optical- Z axis Electrical- X axis Mechanical- Y axis

CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS CONTN.

Temperature coefficient f = k(fn + C) f =change in frequency (Hz) k= temperature coefficient (Hz/MHz/C) fn= natural crystal frequency (MHz)

C= change in temperature (C )

Example. For a 10MHz crystal with a temperature coefficient k = +10 Hz/MHz/ C, Determine the frequency of operation if the temperature a. Increase in 10 C

b.

Decrease in 5 C

PLL (PHASE LOCKED LOOP)

Is an extremely versatile circuit used extensively in modern electronic communications systems for performing a wide variety of functions, modulation, demodulation, signal processing, frequency generator etc. It is also used in analog and digital modulation with the transmission of digital pulse

PLL figure

PLL
Is a closed loop feedback control system PLL consist a. Phase comparator

b.
c. d.

LPF (Low Pass Filter)

Amplifier VCO

How do we acquire lock state in PLL?

CAPTURE RANGE
-Is defined as the band of frequencies centered around the VCO natural frequency ( fn) where the PLL can initially establish or acquire frequency lock with an external input signal from an unlocked condition. Aka acquisition range Or, pull-in range when it terms in peak value

Note: C.R = 2x Pull-in Range

LOCK RANGE
Is defined as the band of frequencies centered on the VCOs natural frequency over which a PLL can maintain frequency lock with an external input signal. aka tracking range Or, Hold-in range in terms of peak Note: LR= 2x Hold-in range

PLL LOOP GAIN

It is the product of individual gain. KL = KfKdKoKa

KL = PLL open-loop gain (Hz/rad.)

Kf = Low Pass Filter Gain (volts/volt) Kd =Phase comparator gain ( volts/rad.) Ko = VCO gain ( Hz/volts)

Ka = amplifier gain ( volts/volt)

IMPORTANT EQUATION
Kv = 2KL Vd = e Kd (volts) Vout = d Kf Ka (volts)

f= Vout Ko (Hz)
Maximum phase comparator output voltage: Vd(max) = e(max) Kd = /2 Kd

IMPORTANT EQUATION
Hold-in range or the maximum change in the VCO output frequency:
fmax= (/2)KfKdKoKa (Hz) fmax= (/2)KL (Hz)

FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZERS

Example: For the PLL, A VCO natural frequency fn= 200kHz, an external input frequency fi= 210kHz, and the transfer functions Kd= 0.2 V/rad, Kf= 1, Ka= 5, and Ko= 20kHz/V. Determine a.PLL open-loop gain in Hz/rad & rad/s. b. Change in VCO frequency necessary to achieve lock (f) c. PLL output voltage

d. Phase detector output voltage (Vd)

e. Static phase error ( e) f. Hold-in range (fmax)