MOVEMENT AND SUPPORT IN ANIMALS

Animal locomotion Role Of Skeleton

BONE AND CARTILAGE

The skeleton is made up of hard tissue that is formed by living cells Cartilage is relatively hard but more flexible than bone Hard bone is made from cartilage by adding more and more calcium salts

BONE AND CARTILAGE

Throughout the life of a mammal, the skeleton contains an increasing amount of calcified tissue (hard bone) In a newborn mammal, parts of the skeleton are made of cartilage and are therefore rather soft

TYPES OF SKELETON 1)Endoskeleton 2)Exoskeleton 3)Hydroskeleton

ENDOSKELETON
Vertebrates (animals with a backbone) such as mammals have an endoskeleton. The hard skeletal material is on the inside of the body and the softer less dense muscle and connective tissue are on the outside

EXOSKELETON
Insects and crustaceans, for example, have the hard, protective material on the outside of the body with the softer tissues on the inside. This exoskeleton has the major disadvantage that it limits growth

HYDROSKELETON
Some organisms have no real protective skeleton at all, but they still need some firm material to push or pull against when they move These soft-bodied animals such as slugs and earthworms, use their body fluid as a hydroskeleton

JOINT
The rigidity of the skeleton is ideal for support and protection, but for movement the skeleton must be flexible. This is possible because of joints A joint is part of the skeleton where two bones meet There are several types of joint in the body, but the type that allows the greatest amount of movement is called the synovial joint

SYNOVIAL JOINT
The direction and amount of movement possible at a synovial joint depend on: 1) The shape of the bones at the point where they articulate (come together) 2) How much movement is allowed by the ligaments that bind the two bones together

MUSCLE
Muscle work in antagonistic pairs Muscle can only cause movement by contracting (shortening) they can only pull, they cannot push Muscle are arranged in pairs which have opposing actions- one muscle contracts to move a bone in one direction and the other contracts to move it back. These pairs of muscles are called antagonistic pairs

MUSCLE
Muscles contract and pull on bones to move the skeleton Muscles are collections of very long muscle fibres A powerful microscope shows that each muscle fibre is made up of interlocking filaments of two different proteins called actin and myosin

MUSCLE
When a nerve impulse arrives at a muscle fibre from a motor neurone, the actin and myosin filaments slide over each other and shorten the muscle fibre When lots of fibres shorten at the same time, the muscle contracts

MUSCULAR
Muscular work requires energy 2 types of respiration: 1) Aerobic Respiration 2) Anaerobic Respiration

AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Work must be done to contract muscle The energy for this comes from aerobic respiration The equation : Glucose+ oxygen energy+carbon+water dioxide

AEROBIC RESPIRATION
The oxygen comes from the air It is taken in at the lungs and carried around the body in the blood, pumped by the heart Glucose comes from food digested in the gut, and is also carried in the blood Muscles have extensive capillary beds to supply glucose and oxygen for respiration and to carry away carbon dioxide The blood also carries away heat that is produced during respiration

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
When we work very hard our muscles use up a lot of energy The heart and lungs, even working flat out, cannot supply enough oxygen to provide this energy by aerobic respiration Muscles can release energy from food without using oxygen by a process called anaerobic respiration

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Glucose energy + lactic acid Anaerobic respiration has two drawbacks: 1) It gives only about one-twentieth of the energy perglucose molecule that aerobic respiration yields 2) Lactic acid is poisonous- if it builds up in the cells it inhibits muscular contraction, which leads to fatigue and eventually death

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
This harmful lactic acid is carried out of the muscles in the blood It is transported around the body to the heart, liver and kidneys where it is oxidised to pyruvate, which can be used to release energy by aerobic respiration The heart, the liver and kidneys will need extra oxygen to get rid of this lactic acid, providing by the deep fast breathing that follows hard exercise. This extra oxygen is the oxygen debt

MOVING THROUGH THE AIR

The air is not very dense, so it offers little support to an organism moving through it. Birds are well adapted to move through the air. They have: 1) large wings with feathers which provide a large surface of the correct shape to provide lift 2) a light skeleton and streamlined shape 3) powerful flight muscles and efficient musclebone machines to move their wings

ADAPTATION MOVING THROUGH THE AIR

Feathers And Wings
1)Flying demands a great deal of energy 2)Feathers provide thermal insulation, so the bird can keep its body temperature high (muscles work more efficiently when they are warm) without losing too much heat to the environment

ADAPTATION MOVING THROUGH THE AIR

3)Birds are endothermic and keep their body temperature steady at around 410C 4)Flight feathers provide a large wing area for very little weight 5)The barbs of the flight feather are hooked together to form the airproof vane

ADAPTATION MOVING THROUGH THE AIR

Bones And Muscles - the large surface area of the wing is due to the long flight feathers, and to the extended bones of the forelimb The beak is lighter than the jaws and teeth of a mammal The neck - is long and flexible. This compensate for the stiffness of the spine

ADAPTATION MOVING THROUGH THE AIR

The coracoid bone allows the muscle to move the wing to produce the upstroke in flapping flight The wing has fewer bones than the forelimb of a human. This means less weight, especially important when the wings are moved during flapping flight

ADAPTATION MOVING THROUGH THE AIR

The vertebrate (back bone) are fused together. This provides a rigid framework for flying movements The sternum (breast bone) is deep and forms the keel. The large area of this bone provides the surface for attachment of the large flight muscles The bones are hollow and very light. They are strong because they have many cross-struts

MOVING THROUGH WATER

Water is very much more dense than air, so it is more difficult for an organism to push its way through water than it is through air On the other hand, the water offers more support than air for the organisms body and something firm to push against

FISH MOVING THROUGH WATER

Fish are highly adapted to movement through water 1) a streamlined shape to reduce water resistance. Is improved by backward-facing, overlapping scales and a smooth covering of mucus 2) a broad tail and tailfin to push the fish through the water 3) Additional fins to prevent unwanted movement

FISH MOVING THROUGH WATER

4) A swim bladder to control vertical movement. When filled with gas the fish become less dense and floats upwards. When emptied the fish becomes more dense and sinks downwards 5) An arrangement of muscles and a flexible backbone that allow the fish to push its tail against the water

FISH MOVING THROUGH WATER

6)Paired (pectoral) fins have two functions : i) prevent pitching of the nose ii) by altering the angle at which water flows over them, they can move the fish to different levels in the water 7) Caudal fin increases the surface area of the tail. This increases the propulsion gained when the tail is pushed against the water